THE NEW WORLD OF ISLAM BY LOTHROP STODDARD FULL AUDIOBOOK

The new world of Islam by Loth Stoddard am PhD Harve chapter 1 the mohammadan Revival by the 18th century the Muslim world had sunk to the lowest depth of its decrepitude nowhere were there any signs of healthy Vigor everywhere were stagnation and Decay manners and morals were alike

Execrable the last vestiges of sasic culture had vanished in a barbarous luxury of the few and an equally barbarous degradation of the multitude learning was virtually dead the few universities which survived fallen into dreary Decay and languishing in poverty and neglect government had become despotism tempered by Anarchy and

Assassination here and there a major desperate like the Sultan of turkey or the Indian great Mogul maintained some semblance of State Authority albeit provincial passes were forever striving to erect independent governments based like their masters on tyranny and extortion the pases in turn strove ceaselessly against unruly local Chiefs

And swarms of brigands who infested the country Countryside beneath this Sinister hierarchy grown the people robbed bullied and ground into the dust peasant and townsmen had alike lost all incentive to labor or initiative and both Agriculture and trade had fallen to the lowest level compatible with bare

Survival as for religion it was as decadent as everything else the auster monotheism of Muhammad had become overlaid with a rank growth of superstition and pural mysticism the mosque stood unfrequented and ruinous deserted by the ignorant multitude which decked out in amulets charms and rosaries listened to squalet fakir or

Ecstatic dervishes and went on pilgrimages to the tombs of holy men worshiped as Saints and intercessors with that Ally who had become too remote a being for the direct devotion of these bited Souls as for the moral precepts of the Quran they were ignored or defied wine drinking and opium eating were well

Nigh Universal prostitution was rampant and the most degrading vices flaunted naked and unashamed even the holy cities Mecca and Medina were sink holes of iniquity while the Haj or pilgrimage ordained by the prophet had become a scandal through its abuses in fine the life had apparently gone out of Islam

Leaving not but a dry husk of soulless ritual and degrading Superstition behind could Muhammad have returned to Earth he would unquestionably have anathematized his followers as apostates and idolators yet in this Darkest Hour a voice came crying out of the vast Arabian Desert the Cradle of Islam

Calling the faithful back to the true path this Puritan reformer the famous ABD l wahab kindled a fire which presently spread to the remotest corners of the Muslim World purging Islam of its sloth and Reviving The fervor of olden days the great Muhammad Revival had begun Muhammed IBN ABD lahab was born

About the year ad 1,700 in the heart of the Arabian Desert the region known as The NED the Ned was the one clean spot in the decadent Muslim world we have already seen how with the transformation of the caliphate from a Theocratic democracy to an oriental despotism the free-spirited Arabs had returned

Scornfully to their deserts here they had maintained their wild freedom neither caleff nor Sultan dared Venture far into those vast solitudes of burning sand and choking thirst where the rash Invader was lured to sudden death in a whirl of stabbing Spears the Arabs recognized no master wandering at will

With their flocks and camels or settled here and they in green oases hidden in the desert’s heart and in the desert they retain their primitive political and religious virtues The Nomad bedwin lived under the sway of patriarchal Sheiks the settled dwellers in the oases usually acknowledged the authority of

Some leading family but these rulers possessed the slenderest authority narrowly circumscribed by wellestablished custom and a jealous public opinion which they transgressed at their Peril the Turks to be sure had managed to acquire a precarious authority over the holy cities and the Red Sea literal but the neded the vast

Interior was free and in religion as in politics the desert Ara kept the faith of their fathers scornfully rejecting the Corruptions of decadent Islam they held fast to the simple Theology of primitive Islam so congenial to their Arab Natures into this atmosphere of an older and better age abdl wahab was born

Displaying from the first a studious and religious bent he soon acquired a reputation for Learning and sanctity making the meccan pilgrimage while still a young man he studied at Medina and traveled as as far as Persia returning ultimately to the Ned he returned burning with holy wrath at what he had

Seen and determined to preach a Puritan Reformation for years he wandered up and down Arabia and at last he converted Muhammed head of the great Clan of sahud the most powerful chieftain in all the Ned this gave abdl wab both moral Prestige and material strength and he made the most of his

Opportunities gradually the desert Arabs were welded into a political religious unity like that affected by the prophet abdl wahab was in truth a faithful counterpart of the first cffs Abu Bakr and Omar when he died in 1,787 his disciple sahud proved a worthy successor the new wahab estate was a

Close counterpart of the mechan caliphate though possessing great military power sahud always considered himself responsible to public public opinion and never encroached upon the legitimate freedom of his subjects government though stern was able and just the wahab judges were competent and honest robbery became almost unknown so well was the public peace

Maintained education was sedulously fostered every Oasis had its School while teachers were sent to the bedwin tribes having Consolidated the Ned sahud was now ready to undertake the greater task of subduing and purifying the Muslim World his first objective was of course the holy cities this objective

Was attained in the opening years of the 19th century nothing could stand against the rush of the wahabi hosts burning with fanatic hatred against the Turks who were loaded both as apostate Muslims and as usurpers of that Supremacy in Islam which all Arabs believed should rest in Arab hands when sahud died in

1,814 he was prepared ing to invade Syria it looked for a moment as though the wahabis were to sweep the East and Puritan eyesee all Islam at a blow but it was not to be unable to stem the wahve flood the Sultan of turkey called on his powerful vessel the famous

Mahamed Ali this able Albanian Adventurer had by that time made himself master of Egypt frankly recognizing the superiority of the West he had called in numerous European officers who rapidly fashioned the formidable army composed largely of hard-fighting Albanian Highlanders and disciplined and equipped after European models mahamed Ali gladly

Answered the Sultan’s summons and it soon became clear that even wahabi fanaticism was no match for European muskets and artillery handled by seasoned veterans in a short time the holy cities were recaptured and the wahabis were driven back into the desert the nassin wahabi Empire had vanished

Like a mirage wah M’s political role was ended five however wahabism spiritual role had only just begun the Ned remained a focus of Puritan Zeal whence the new spirit radiated in all directions even in the holy cities wahabism continued to set the religious tone and the numberless hajis or

Pilgrims who came annually from every part of the Muslim World returned to their homes zealous reformers soon the wahab 11 began to produce profound disturbances in the most quarters for example in Northern India a wahhabi fanatic SED Ahmed 6 so roused the Punjabi mohammadans that he actually

Built up a Theocratic State and only his chance death prevented a possible wahabi conquest of Northern India this state was shattered by the siks about 1,830 but when the English conquered the country they had infinite trouble with the smoldering Embers of wahabi feeling which in fact lived on contributed to

The Indian Mutiny and permanently fanaticz Afghanistan and the wild tribes of the Indian Northwest Frontier 7 it was during these years that the famous say muhamed Ben seny came from his Algerian home to Mecca and there emed those wahabi principles which led to the founding of the great pan Islamic

Fraternity that bears his name even the babst movement in Persia far removed though it was doctrinally from wahab teaching was indubitably a secondary reflex of the wahabi urging in fact within a generation the strictly wahhab movement had broadened into the larger development known as the muhammadan Revival and this in turn was developing

Numerous phases Chief among them being the movement usually termed pan islamism that movement particularly on its political side I shall treat in the next chapter at present let us examine the other aspects of the muhammadan Revival with special reference to its religious and cultural phases the waha movement was a strictly Puritan

Reformation its aim was the reform of abuses the abolition of superstitious practices and a return to primitive Islam all later accre the writings and interpretations of the medieval theologians ceremonial or mystical Innovations Saint Worship in fact every sort of change were condemned the auster monotheism of Muhammad was preached in

All its uncompromising Simplicity and the Quran literally interpreted was taken as the sole guide for Human Action this doctrinal simplification was accompanied by a most rigid code of morals the prayers fastings and other practices enjoined by Muhammad were scrupulously observed the most auster manner of living was enforced silk and

Clothing rich food wine opium tobacco coffee and all other indulgences were sternly prescribed even religious architecture was practically tabooed the wahab is pulling down the prophet’s Tomb at Medina and demolishing the minettes of mosques as Godless Innovations the wahabis were thus despite their moral earnestness excessively narrow-minded and it was

Very fortunate for Islam that they soon lost their political power and were compelled thenceforth to confine their efforts to moral teaching many critics of Islam point to the wahhab movement as a proofed that Islam is essentially retrograde and innately incapable of evolutionary develop velopment these criticisms however appear to be

Unwarranted the initial stage of every religious Reformation is an uncritical return to the Primitive cult to the religious reformer the only way of Salvation is a denial of all subsequent Innovations regardless of their character our own Protestant Reformation began in just this way and humanists like arasmus repelled and disgusted by

Protestantism’s puritanical narrowness could see no good in the movement declaring that it menaced all true culture and merely replaced an infallible Pope by an infallible Bible as a matter of fact the Puritan beginnings of the muhammadan Revival presently broadened along more constructive lines some of these becoming tined with undoubted

Liberalism the Muslim reformers of the early 19th century had not dug very deeply into their religious past before they discovered motaz ISM we have already reviewed the great struggle which had raged between reason and Dogma in Islam’s early days in which Dogma had triumphed so completely that the very memory of

Melismas were revived and the liberal-minded reformers were delighted to find such striking confirmation of their ideas both in the writings of the Mite doctors and in the sacred texts themselves the principle that reason and not blind prescription was to be the test open the door to the possibility of

All those reforms which they had most at heart heart for example the reformers found that in the traditional writings Muhammad was reported to have said I am no more than a man when I order you anything respecting religion receive it when I order you about the Affairs of

The world then I am nothing more than man and again as though foreseeing the day when sweeping changes would be necessary yeah are in an age in which if ye abandon one/ tenth of that which is ordered ye will be ruined at after this a time will come when he who shall

Observe one/ tenth of what is now ordered will be redeemed nine before discussing the ideas and efforts of the modern Muslim reformers it might be well to examine the assertions made by numerous Western critics that Islam is by its very nature incapable of Reform and Progressive adaptation to the

Expansion of human knowledge such is the contention not only of Christian pists 10 but also of rationalists like Rea and European administr aters of Muslim populations like Lord chromer Lord chromer in fact piy summarizes this critical attitude in his statement Islam cannot be reformed that is to say

Reformed Islam is Islam no longer it is something else 11 now these criticisms coming as they do from close students of Islam often possessing intimate personal acquaintance with Muslims deserve respectful consideration and yet in historic survey of religions and especially a survey of the thoughts and accomplishments of

Muslim reformers during the past Century seem to refute these pessimistic charges in the first place it should be remembered that Islam Today stands just about where Christendom stood in the 15th century at the beginning of the Reformation there is the same supremacy of Dogma over reason the same blind

Adherence to prescription and Authority the same suspicion and hostility to freedom of thought or sight scientific knowledge there is no doubt that a study of the muhammadan Sacred texts particularly of the sharat or canon law together with a glance over Muslim history for the last Thousand Years

Reveal an attitude on the whole quite incompatible with modern progress and civilization but was not precisely the same thing true of Christendom at the beginning of the 15th century compare the Sharad with the Christian canon law the spirit is the same take for example the sharat’s prohibition on the lending

Of money at interest a Prohibition which if a renders impossible anything like business or industry in the modern sense this is the example oftenest cited to prove Islam’s innate incompatibility with modern civilization but the Christian Cannon law equally forbade interest and enforced that prohibition so strictly that for centuries the Jews had a

Monopoly of business in Europe while the first Christians who dared to lend money the lumberts were regarded almost as Heretics were universally hated and were frequently persecuted again take the matter of Muslim hostility to freedom of thought and scientific investigation can Islam show anything more revolting than that scene in

Christian history when less than 300 years ago 12 the great Galileo was hailed before the papal Inquisition and forced under threat of torture to recant the damnable heresy that the Earth went round the son as a matter of fact Muhammad reverenced knowledge his own words are eloquent testimony to that

Here are some of his sayings seek knowledge even if need be on the borders of China seek knowledge from the Cradle to the Grave one word of knowledge is of more value than the reciting of a hundred prayers the ink of sages is more precious than the blood of Martyrs One

Word of Wisdom learned and Comm communicated to a Muslim brother outweighs the prayers of a whole year wise men are the successors of the Prophet God has created nothing better than reason in truth a man may have prayed fasted given arms made pilgrimage and all other good works nevertheless he

Shall be rewarded only in the measure that he has used his Common Sense these citations and there are others of the same tenor prove that the modern Muslim reformers have good scriptural backing for their liberal attitude of course I do not imply that the reform movement in

Islam just because it is liberal and Progressive is thereby ifo facto assured of success history reveals too many Melancholy instances to the contrary indeed we have already seen how in Islam itself the promising liberal movement of its early days passed utterly away what history does show however is that when

The times fade progress religions are adapted to that progress by being reformed and liberalized no Human Society once fairly on the March was ever turned back by a Creed halted it may be but if the progressive urge persists the doctrinal barrier is either surmounted undermined flanked or swept aside now there is no

Possibility that the Muslim world will henceforth lack Progressive influences it is in close contact with western civilization and is being increasingly permeated with Western ideas Islam cannot break away and isolate itself if it would everything therefore portends its profound modification of course critics like Lord Cromer contend that this modified Islam

Will be Islam no longer but why not if the people continue to call themselves muhammadans and continue to draw spiritual sustenance from the message of Muhammad why should they be denied the name modern Christianity is certain certainly vastly different from medieval Christianity while among the various Christian churches there exist the widest doctrinal

Variations yet all who consider themselves Christians are considered Christians by all except bigots out of step with the times let us now scrutinize the Muslim reformers judging them not by texts and Chronicles but by their words and deeds since as one of their number an Algerian very pertinently remarks men should be judged

Not by the letter of their sacred books but by what they actually do 13 modern Muslim liberalism as we have seen received its first encouragement from the discovery of the old Motas light literature of nearly a thousand years before to be sure Islam had never been quite destitute of liberal Minds even in

Its Darkest Days a few voices had been raised against the prevailing obscurantism for example in the 16th Century the celebrated El garan had written it is not at all impossible that God May hold in reserve for men of the future perceptions that have not been vouched safe to the men of the past

Divine munificence never ceases to pour benefits and Enlightenment into the hearts of wise men of every age 14 these isolated voices from Islam’s dark time helped to encourage the modern reformers and by the middle of the 19th century every Muslim land had its group of forward-looking men at first their

Numbers were were of course insignificant and of course they drew down upon themselves the anathemus of The Fanatic mlles 15 and the hatred of the ignorant multitude the first country where the reformers made their influence definitely felt was in India here a group headed by the famous sers SED

Ahmed Khan started an important liberal movement founding associations publishing books and newspapers and establishing the well-known College of alagar Sir Sayad Ahmed is a good type of the early liberal reformers conservative in temperament and perfectly Orthodox in his theology he yet denounced the current decadence of Islam with truly wahabi fervor he

Also was frankly appreciative of Western ideas and eager to assimilate the many good things which the West had to offer as he wrote in 1,867 we must study European scientific works even though they are not written by Muslims and though we may find in them things contrary to the teachings of

The Quran we should imitate the Arabs of olden days who did not fear to shake their faith by studying Pythagoras 16 this nucleus of Indian Muslim liberals rapidly grew in strength producing able leaders like muli Cher Ali and Sadir Ali whose scholarly Works in faultless English are known

Throughout the world 17 these men called themselves neom Motas lights and boldly advocated reforms such as a thorough overhauling of the sharat and a general modernization of Islam their Viewpoint is well set forth by another of their leading figures as could abukar nothing was more distant from the

Prophets thought he writes than to Fetter the mind or to lay down fixed immutable unchanging laws for his followers the Quran is a book of guidance to the faithful and not an obstacle in the path of their social moral legal and intellectual progress he laments Islam’s present backwardness for

He continues modern Islam with its hierarchy of priesthood gross fanaticism appalling ignorance and superstitious practices is indeed a discredit to the Islam of the Prophet Muhammad he concludes with the following liberal confession of faith is Islam hostile to progress I will emphatically answer this question in the negative Islam stript of

Its theology is a perfectly simple religion its Cardinal principle is belief in one God and belief in Muhammad as his Apostle the rest is mere accretion superfluity 18 meanwhile the Liberals were making themselves felt in other parts of the Muslim World in Turkey liberals actually headed the government

During much of the generation between the Crimean War and the despotism of Abdul Hamid 19 and Turkish liberal ministers like Rashid Pasha and madat Pasha made Earnest though unavailing efforts to liberalize and modernize the Ottoman Empire even the Dreadful hamidan tyranny could not kill Turkish liberalism it went underground or into

Exile and in 1908 put through the revolution which deposed the Tyrant and brought The Young Turks to power in Egypt liberalism took firm rote represented by men like shik Mohammad Abdu Rector of elazer University and respected friend of Lord chromer even outlying fragments of Islam like the

Russian tartar awoke to the new spirit and produced liberal-minded forward looking men 20 the liberal reformers whom I have been describing of course formed the part of evolutionary progress in Islam they are in the best sense of the word conservatives receptive to healthy change yet maintaining their hereditary po sincerely religious men

They have faith in Islam as a living moral force and from it they continue to draw their spiritual sustenance there are however other groups in the Muslim world who have so far are succumb to Western influences that they have more or less lost touch with both their spiritual and cultural

Pasts in all the more civilized portions of the Muslim World especially in countries long under European control like India Egypt and Algeria there are many Muslims Western educated and Western culture veneered who have drifted into an attitude varying from easygoing religious indifference to about agnosticism from their minds the old

Muslim Zeal has entirely Departed the Algerian Isel hamw describes the attitude of this class of his fellow countrymen when he writes European skepticism is not without influence upon the Algerian Muslims who if they have kept some attachment for the external forms of their religion usually ignore the unhealthy excesses of the religious

Sentiment they do not give up their religion but they no longer dream of converting all those who do not practice it they want to hand it onto their children but they do not worry about other men’s salvation this is not belief it is not even free thought but it is lukewarmness

21 Beyond these tepid latitudinarians are still other groups of a very different character here we find combine the most contradictory sentiments young men whose brains are seething with radical Western ideas atheism socialism bism and what not yet curiously enough these fanatic radicals tend to join hands with the fanatic reactionaries of

Islam in a common hatred of the West considering themselves the born leaders and exploiters of the ignorant masses the radicals hunger for political power and rage against that Western domination which vetos their ambitious pretentions hence they are mostly extreme nationalists while they are also deep in pan-islamic reactionary schemes

Indeed we often witness the strange spectacle of atheists posing as Muslim fanatics and affecting a truly dervish Zeal Mr bshar well describes this type when he writes I know a gentleman a Muhammad and by profession who owes his success in life to his faith though outwardly he conforms to all the

Precepts of Islam and occasionally stands up in public as the champion and spokesman of his Co religionists yet to my utter horror I found that he held opinions about his religion and its founder which even voler would have rejected with indign and given with commiserating contempt

22 later on we shall examine more fully the activities of these Gentry in the chapters devoted to pen islamism and nationalism what I desire to emphasize here is their pernicious influence on the prospects of a genuine muhammadan Reformation as visualized by the true reformers whom I have described their

Malevolent desire to stir up the fanatic passions of the ignorant masses and their equally malevolent hatred of everything Western except military improvements are revealed by outbursts like the following from the pen of a prominent Young Turk yes the muhammadan religion is in open hostility to all your world of progress learn yeah

European observers that a Christian whatever his position by the mere fact that he is a Christian is in our eyes a being devoid of all human dignity our reasoning is simple and definitive we say the man whose judgment is so perverted as to deny the evidence of the

One God God and to fabricate gods of different kinds cannot be other than the most ignoble expression of human stupidity to speak to him would be a humiliation to our reason and an offense to the Grandeur of the master of the universe the worshipper of false gods is

A monster of ingratitude he is the execration of the universe to combat him convert him or annihilate him is the holiest task of the faithful these are the Eternal commands of our one God for us there are in this world only Believers and misbeliever love charity fraternity to Believers disgust hatred

And War to misbeliever among misbeliever the most odious and criminal are those who while recognizing God create him of Earthly parents give him a son a mother so monstrous in aberration surpasses in our eyes all bounds of iniquity the presence of such miscreant Among Us is the bane

Of our existence their Doctrine is a direct in to the purity of our faith their contact a pollution for our bodies any relation with them a torture for our souls while detesting you we have been studying your political institutions and your military organizations besides the new arms which

Providence procures for us by your own means you yourselves have rekindled the inextinguishable Faith of Our heroic Martyrs our Young Turks our bobies our new fraternities all our sect in their varied forms are inspired by the same thought the same purpose toward what end Christian civilization never 23 such hars unfortunately find ready

Hearers among the Muslim masses although the liberal reformers are a growing power in Islam it must not be forgotten that they are as yet only a minority an elite below whom lie the ignorant masses still suffering from the blight of age-long obscurantism wrapped in admiration of their own world which they

Regard as the highest ideal of human existence and fanatically hating everything outside as wicked despicable and deceptive even when compelled to admit the superior power of the West they hate it nonetheless they Rebel blindly against the spirit of change which is forcing them out of their old ruts and their

Anger is still further heightened by that ubiquitous Western domination which is pressing upon them from all sides such persons are as clay in the hands of the pan Islamic and nationalist leaders who mold the multitude to their own Sinister ends Islam is in fact today Torn Between the forces of liberal

Reform and chauvinistic reaction the Liberals are not only the hope of an evolutionary Reformation they are also favored by the trend of the times since the Muslim world is being continually permeated by Western progress and must continue to be thus permeated unless Western Civilization itself collapses in

Ruin yet yet though the ultimate Triumph of the Liberals appears probable what delays what setbacks what fresh barriers of warfare and fanaticism may not the chauvinist reactionaries bring about neither the reform of Islam nor the relations between East and West are free from perils whose ominous possibilities we shall later discuss meanwhile there

Remains the hopeful fact that throughout the Muslim World a numerous and Powerful minority composed not merely of westernized persons but also of Orthodox conservatives are aware of Islam’s decadence and are convinced that a thoroughgoing Reformation along liberal Progressive lines is at once a practical necessity and a sacred Duty exactly how

This Reformation shall be legally affected has not yet been determined nor is a detailed discussion of technical Machinery necessary for our consideration 24 history teaches us that where the will to reform is vitally present Reformation will somehow or other be accomplished one thing is certain the reforming spirit in its various

Manifestations has already produced profound changes throughout Islam the Muslim world of today is vastly different from the Muslim world of a century ago the wahab 11 has destroyed abuses and has rekindled a pure religious Faith even its fanatical Zeal has not been without moral compensations the spread of liberal

Principles and Western progress goes on a pace if there is much to fear for the future there is also much to Hope footnotes five on the wahab movement c a e chatelier LS LOD Dix noima Paris 1,888 WG palgrave essays on Eastern questions London 1,872 DB McDonald Muslim theology London

1903 JL burkard notes on the beduins and wahabis two volumes London 1,831 a COO LED as made wah habes journal A Kei 4 Volume 2 Pages 168 ET SEC 6 not to be confused with sir Saad Ahmed of alagar the Indian Muslim liberal of the mid 19th century 74

English alarm at the latent fanaticism of the North Indian Muslims down through the middle of the 19th century CES sir ww Hunter the Indian musulmans London 1,872 84 the babst movement C Clement huart La religion de bab Paris 1,889 K Arthur de goino trsn pers Paris

1,867 a good summary of all these early movements of the muhammadan Revival is found in l chatelier opci n Mish katel masab I 4651 10 the best recent examples of this polemical literature are the writings of the Reverend s the well-known missionary to the Arabs especially is Arabia the

Cradle of Islam Edinburgh 1900 and the reproach of Islam London 1915 also see volume entitled the muhammadan world of today being a collection of the papers read at the Protestant missionary Conference held at Cairo Egypt in 1906 11 chromer modern Egypt Volume 2 P229 London 1908 for Rena’s attitude see his elamis

Me law science Paris 1,883 12 in the year 1,633 13 Ismael hammed lameu suman’s France dord Del Afric Paris 1906 14 quoted by Dr Peron in his work Al islamism Paris 1,877 15 the malas are the Muslim clergy though they do not exactly correspond to the clergy of Christendom Muhammad was averse to

Anything like a priesthood and Islam makes no legal provision for an ordained Priestly class or cast as is the case in Christian ity Judaism brahmanism and other religions theoretically any Muslim can conduct religious Services As Time passed however a class of men developed who were learned in Muslim Theology and law these ultimately

Became practically priests though theoretically they should be regarded as theological lawyers they also developed religious orders of dervishes Etc but primitive Islam knew nothing of them 16 from the article by Leon Kon in lavis rambow hiso general volume 12 P 498 this article gives an excellent General survey of the intellectual

Development of the Muslim world in the 19th century 17 especially his best known book The Spirit of Islam London 1,891 18 as could a book share essays Indian and Islamic Pages 20 24 284 London 1912 19 1,856 to 1,878 24 the liberal movement among the Russian tartars CR minius vur Western

Culture in eastern lands London 1906 21 ismel Hamet lameu suman’s France dord Del Afric p268 Paris 1906 22sa Bookshare op CIT p2401 23 shbd Al Haw in Sharif pases Oregon mecat of August 1921 quoted from a serier Le nationalism of musulman Constantine Algeria 1913 244 such discussion of legal

Methods CWS blunt the future of Islam London 1,882 a shatal llod noima Paris 1,888 Dr Peron El islamism Paris 1,877 hn brailford modernism in Islam the forn nightly review September 1908 sir Theodore Morrison can Islam be reformed the 19th century and after October 1908 mthal laam moral Islamic review politique International July

1916 XX L Islam AE ler reviewed a Paris January 15th 1916 chapter 2 pen islamism like all great movements the muhammadan Revival is highly complex starting with the simp Le Puritan protest of wahabism it has developed many phases widely diverse and sometimes almost antithetical in the previous chapter We

Examined the phase looking toward an evolutionary Reformation of Islam and a genuine assimilation of the progressive Spirit as well as the external forms of Western Civilization at the same time we saw that these liberal reformers are as yet only a minority and Elite while the Muslim masses still plunged in ignorance

And imperfectly awakened from their ag- long toror are influenced by other leaders of a very different character men inclined to militant rather than Pacific courses and hostile rather than receptive to the West these militant forces are in their turn complex they may be grouped roughly under the general concepts known as pan

Islamism and nationalism it is to a consideration of the first of these two concepts to pan islamism that this chapter is devoted penis islamism which in its broadest sense is the feeling of solidarity between all True Believers is as old as the prophet when Muhammad and his few

Followers were bound together by the tie of Faith against their Pagan compatriots who sought their destruction to Muhammad the principle of fraternal solidarity among Muslims was of transcendent importance and he succeeded in implanting this so deeply in Muslim hearts that 13th centuries have not sensibly weakened it the bond between

Muslim and Muslim is today much stronger than that between Christian and Christian of course Muslims fight bitterly among themselves but these conflicts never quite lose the aspect of family quarrels and tend to be adjourned in presence of infidel aggression Islam’s profound sense of solidarity probably explains in large part its

Extraordinary hold upon its followers no other religion has such a grip on its voies Islam has won vast territories from Christianity and brahmanism 25 and has driven aism from the face of the Earth 26 yet there has been no single instance where a people once become Muslim has ever abandoned the faith

Extrated they may have been like the Moors of Spain but extrap is not apostasy Islam’s solidarity is powerfully buttressed by two of its fundamental institutions the Haj or pilgrimage to Mecca and the caliphate contrary to the general opinion in the west it is the Haj rather than the caliphate which has exerted the

More consistently unifying influence Muhammad ordained the Haj as a supreme Act of Faith and every year fully 100,000 pilgrims arrive drawn from every quarter of the Muslim World there before the sacred cabba of Mecca men of all Races tongues and cultures meet and mingle in an ecstasy of common devotion

Returning to their homes bearing the proud title of hajis or pilgrims a title which ensures them the reverent homage of their fellow Muslims for for all the rest of their days the political implications of the Haj are obvious it is in reality a perennial pan Islamic Congress where all the interests of the

Faith are discussed by delegates from every part of the muhammadan world and where plans are elaborated for Islam’s defense and propagation here nearly all the militant leaders of the muhammadan Revival ABD Al wahab muhamed Ben senesi jedin L Afghani and many more felt the imperious summons to their task

27 as for the caliphate it has played a great historic role especially in its early days and we have already studied its varying fortunes reduced to air Shadow after the Mongol destruction of Baghdad it was revived by the Turkish Sultans who assumed the title and were recognized as cffs by the Orthodox

Muslim World 28 however these Sultan cffs of stambul 29 never succeeded in winning the religious homage accorded their predecessors of Mecca and Baghdad in arabis especially the spectacle of Turkish cffs was an anachronism to which they could never be truly reconciled Sultan Abdul Hamid to be sure

Made an ambitious attempt to revive the caliphates pristine greatness but such success as he attained was due more to the general tide of pan Islamic feeling than to the inherent potency of the cifal name the real leaders of modern pen islamism either gave Abdul Hamid a merely qualified Allegiance or were like

El cesy definitely hostile this was not realized in Europe which came to fear Abdul Hamed as a sort of muhammadan Pope even today most western observers seem to think that pan islamism centers in the caliphate and we see European publicists hopefully discussing whether the caliphate’s retention by the discredited Turkish Sultans its

Transference to the Sharif of Mecca or its total suppression will best clip pan Islam’s Wings this however is a distinctly shortsighted view the cifal institution is still undoubtedly venerated in Islam but the shrewd leaders of the modern pan-islamic movement have long been working on a much broader basis they realize that pan

Islamism real driving power today lies not in the caliphate but in institutions like the Haj and the great pan Islamic fraternities such as the senya of which I shall presently speak 30 let us now trace the fortunes of modern islamism its first stage was of course the wahhab movement the wahab state

Founded by ABD Al wahab in the Ned was modeled on the Theocratic democracy of the mechan cffs and when abdl wahb’s princely disciple sahud losed his fanatic hosts upon the holy cities he dreamed that this was but the first step in a Puritan conquest and consolidation

Of the whole moslim world foiled in this grandiose design wahabism nevertheless soon produced profound political disturbances in distant regions like Northern India and Afghanistan as I have already narrated they were however all integral parts of the wahabi phase being essentially protests against the political decadence of Muslim states and

The moral decadence of Muslim rulers these outbreaks were not inspired by any special fear or hatred of the West since Europe was not yet seriously assailing Islam except in outlying regions like European turkey or the Indies and the impending Peril was consequently not appreciated by the middle of the 19th

Century however the situation had radically altered the French conquest of Algeria the Russian acquisition of transcaucasia and the English Mastery of virtually all India convinced thoughtful Muslims everywhere that Islam was in deadly Peril of falling under Western domination it was at this time that pan islamism assumed that essentially

Anti-western character which it has ever since retained at first resistance to Western encroachment was sporadic and uncoordinated here and there heroic figures like ABD alcer in Algeria and shaml in the Caucasus fought brilliantly against the European Invaders but though these paladins of the faith were accorded widespread sympathy from Muslims they received no

Tangible assistance and uned fell fear and hatred of the West however steadily grew in intensity and the 70s saw the Muslim World swept from end to end by a wave of militant fanaticism in Algeria there was the cabal Insurrection of 1,871 while all over North Africa arose fanatical holy men preaching Holy Wars

The greatest of these being the modest Insurrection in the Egyptian Sudan which maintained itself against England’s best efforts down to kitchener’s capture of carum at the very end of the century in Afghanistan there was an intense exacerbation of fanaticism Awakening sympathetic Echoes among the Indian Muslims both of which gave the British

Much trouble in Central Asia there was a similar access of fanaticism centering in the powerful nean ya fraternity spreading Eastward into Chinese territory and culminating in the great revolts of the Chinese muhammadans both in Chinese turkistan and yunan in the Dutch East Indies there was a whole

Series of revolts the most serious of these being the Ain War which dragged on inter erably not being quite Stamped Out even today the Salient characteristic of this period of militant unrest is its lack of SEO ordination these risings were all spontaneous outbursts of local populations animated to be sure by the

Same spirit of fear and hatred and inflamed by the same fanatical hopes but with no evidence of a central Authority laying settled plans and moving in accordance with a definite program the risings were inspired largely by by the mystical Doctrine known as madism madism was unknown to primitive Islam No trace

Of it occurring in the Quran but in the Traditions or reputed sayings of Muhammad there occurs the statement that the prophet predicted the coming of one bearing the title of Elma 31 who would fill the Earth with equity and Justice from this arose the widespread mystical hope in the appearance of a divinely

Inspired personage who would affect the universal Triumph of Islam Purge the world of infidels and assure the lasting happiness of all Muslims this Doctrine has profoundly influenced Muslim history at various times fanatic leaders have Arisen claiming to be eladi the master of the hour and have won the frenzy devotion of

The Muslim masses just as certain Messiahs have similarly excited the Jews it was thus natural that in their growing apprehension and impotent rage at Western aggression the Muslim masses should turn to the Messianic hope of monism yet matism by its very nature could affect nothing constructive or permanent

It was a mere straw fire flaring up fiercely here and there then dying down leaving the disillusioned masses more discouraged and apathetic than before now all this was recognized by the wiser supporters of the pan-islamic idea the impotence of the wildest outbursts of local fanaticism against the methodical might of Europe convinced thinking

Muslims that long preparation and complete ordination of effort were necessary if Islam was to have any chance of throwing off the European yoke such men also realized that they must study Western methods and adopt much of the western technique of power above all they felt that the political liberation

Of Islam from Western domination must be preceded by a profound spiritual regeneration thereby engendering the moral forces necessary both for the war of Liberation and for the fruitful reconstruction which should follow thereafter and this point the ideals of pan islamists and liberals approach each other both recognize Islam’s present

Decadence both desire its spiritual regeneration it is on the nature of that regeneration that the two parties are opposed the Liberals believe that Islam should really assimilate Western ideas the pen islamists on the other hand believe that primitive Islam contains all that is necessary for regeneration and contend that only Western methods

And material achievements should be adopted by the Muslim world the beginnings of self-conscious systematic pan islamism date from about the middle of the 19th century the movement crystallizes about two fosi the new type religious fraternities like the sen yat and the propaganda of the group of thinkers headed by

Jedin let us first consider the fraternities religious fraternities have existed in Islam for centuries they all possess the same general type of organization being divided into lodges zus headed by Masters known as Madam who exercise a more or less extensive authority over the kin or Brethren until the foundation

Of the new type organizations like the seny however the fraternities exerted little practical influence upon mundane Affairs their interests were almost wholly religious of a mystical devotional nature often characterized by great austerities or by fanatical excesses like those practiced by the whirling and Howling dervishes such political influence as

They did exert was casual and local anything like joint action was impossible owing to their Mutual rivalries and jealousies these old type fraternities still exist in great numbers but they are without political importance except as they have been leavened by the new type fraternities the new type organizations

Date from about the middle of the 19th century the most important in every way being the seny yach its founder SED muhamad Ben seny was born near mam Algeria about the year 1,800 as his title s indicates he was a descendant of the prophet and was thus

Born to a position of honor and importance 32 he early displayed a strong bent for Learning and piety studying theology at the Mish University of Fez and afterwards traveling widely over North Africa preaching a reform of the prevailing religious abuses he then made the pilgrimage to Mecca and there

His reformist Zeal was still further quickened by the Waba teachers it was at that time that he appears to have definitely formulated his plan of a great Puritan order and in 1,843 he returned to North Africa settling in Tripoli where he built his first zya known as the Zab or white

Monastery in the mountains near DNA so impressive was his personality and so so great his organizing ability that converts flocked to him from all over North Africa indeed his power soon alarmed the Turkish authorities in Tripoli and relations became so strain that Sayed muham presently moved his

Headquarters to the Oasis of gabab far to the south in the Libyan Desert when he died in 1,859 his organization had spread over the greater part of North Africa SED maham’s work was carried on uninterruptedly by his son usually known as seny Elma the manner in which the son

Gained his succession typifies the seny spirit Sayad Muhammed had two sons eladi being the younger while they were still mere Lads their father determined to put them to a test to discover which of them had the stronger faith in presence of the entire Z he bade both sons climb a

Tall palm tree and then adjured them by Allah and his Prophet to LEAP to the ground the younger lad leaped at once and reached the ground unharmed the Elder boy refused to Spring to eladi who feared not to commit himself to the will of God passed the right to rule

Throughout his long life s Elma Justified his father’s Choice displaying wisdom and piety of a high order and further extending the power of the fraternity during the latter part of his Reign he removed his headquarters to the Oasis of jao still farther into the Libyan Desert where he died in 19 1802

And was succeeded by his nephew Ahmed El Sharif the present head of the order who also appears to possess marked ability with nearly 80 years of successful activity behind it the cacy order is today one of the vital factors in Islam it counts its adherence in every quarter

Of the Muslim World in Arabia its followers are very numerous and it profoundly influences the spiritual life of the holy cities Mecca and Medina North Africa however Still Remains the focus of cynicism the whole of Northern Africa from Morocco to somala land is dotted with its Zas or lodges all absolutely

Dependent upon the Grand Lodge headed by the master El seny the seny stronghold of Jou lies in the very heart of the Libyan Sahara only one European i33 has ever seen this mysterious spot surrounded by absolute desert with Wells many leagues apart and the roots of approach known only to experienced cesy

Guides every one of whom would suffer a thousand deaths rather than betray him El senesi the master sits serenely apart sending his orders throughout North Africa the influence exerted by the sen Y is profound the local AWS are more than mere lodges besides the mokadam or

Master there is also a Weil or civil governor and these officers have discretionary Authority not merely over the Z members but also over the community at large at least so great is the awe inspired by the senac yaah throughout North Africa that a word from weel or mokadam is always listened to

And abade thus besides the various European Colonial authorities British French or Italian as the case may be there exists an occult government with which the colonial authorities are careful not to come into conflict on their part the seny are equally careful to avoid a downright breach with the European powers their long-headed

Cautious policy is truly astonishing for more than half a century the order has been a great force yet it has never risked the Supreme Adventure in many of the fanatic risings which have occurred in various parts of Africa local cesy have undoubtedly Taken part and the same was true during the Italian

Campaign in Tripoli and in the late War but the the order itself has never officially entered the lists in fact this attitude of mingled cautious reserve and hotty aloofness is maintained not only towards Christians but also towards the other powers that be in Islam the senace yah has always

Kept its absolute freedom of action its relations with the Turks have never been cordial even the Wy Abdul Hamid at the height of his Prestige as the champion of pan islamism could never get from El seny more than coldly platonic expressions of approval and one of seny

El mti’s favorite remarks was said to have been Turks and Christians I will break both of them with one and the same stroke equally characteristic was his attitude toward Muhammad Ahmed the leader of the modest Uprising in the Egyptian Sudan flushed With Victory muhamad Ahmed sent emissaries to El

Senesi asking his Aid El seny refused remarking haughtily what have I to do with this fakir from dong am I not myself myy if I choose these Fabian tactics do not mean that the Cy are idle far from it on the contrary they are ceaselessly at work with the

Spiritual arms of teaching discipline and conversion the cacy program is the welding first of Muslim Africa and later of the whole Muslim world into the revived imamat of Islam’s early days into a great theocracy embracing all true Believers in other words pan islamism but they believe that the political liberation of Islam from

Christian domination must be preceded by a profound spiritual regeneration toward this end they strive ceaselessly to improve the manners and morals of the populations under their influence while they also strive to improve material conditions by encouraging the better cultivation of oases digging new Wells Building rest houses along the Caravan routs and

Promoting trade the slaughter and raping practiced by the Sudanese Mists disgusted the cesy and Drew from their Chief words of scathing condemnation all this explains the order’s unprecedented self-restraint this is the reason why year after year and decade after decade the cesy advanced slowly calmly coldly Gathering great latent power but

Avoiding the temptation to expended one instant before the proper time meanwhile they are covering North Africa with their lodges and schools disciplining the people to the voice of their mokadem and W Hills and to the Southward converting millions of pagan Negroes to the faith of Islam 34 nothing better shows modern Islam’s

Quickened Vitality than the Revival of missionary fervor during the past 100 Years of course Islam has always displayed strong prelinger successes in its early days were extraordinary and even in its period of decline it never wholly lost its propagating Vigor throughout the Middle Ages Islam continued to gain

Ground in India and China the Turks planted it firmly in the Balkans while between the 14th and 16th centuries Muslim missionaries won notable triumphs in such distant regions as West Africa the Dutch Indies and the Philippines nevertheless taking the Muslim world as a whole religious seal undoubtedly declined reaching low water

Mark during the 18th century the first breath of the muhammadan Revival however blew the smoldering Embers of proselitismo advancing portentously along all its far-flung Frontiers every Muslim is to some extent a born missionary and instinctively propagates his faith among his non-muslim neighbors so the work was carried on not only by Priestly

Specialists but also by multitudes of Travelers traitors and humble migratory workers 30 5 of course numerous zealots consecrated their lives to the task this was particularly true of the religious fraternities the cacey have especially distinguished themselves by their Apostolic fervor and from those natural monasteries the oases of the Sahara

Thousands of maribus have gone forth with flashing eyes and swelling breasts to preach the marvels of Islam devoured with a Zeal like that of the Christian mendicant Friars of the Middle Ages Islam’s missionary triumphs among the Negroes of West and central Africa during the past Century have been extraordinary every candid European

Observer tells the same story as an Englishman very justly remarked some 20 years ago muhammadanism is making marvelous progress in the interior of Africa it is crushing paganism out against it the Christian propaganda is a myth 36 and a French Protestant missionary remarks in similar vein we

See Islam on its March some sometimes slowed down but never stopped towards the heart of Africa despite all obstacles encountered it tirelessly pursues its way it fears nothing even Christianity its most serious rival Islam regards without hate so sure is it a victory while Christians dream of the

Conquest of Africa the muhammadans do it 37 the way in which Islam is marching Southward is dramatically shown by a recent incident a few years ago the British authorities suddenly discovered that muhammadanism was pervading neas Allen an investigation brought out the fact that it was the work of Zanzibar

Arabs they began their propaganda about 1900 10 years later almost every village in southern neeland had its Muslim teacher and its mosque Hut although the movement was frankly anti- European the British authorities did not dare to check it for fear of repercussions elsewhere many European observers fear

That it is only a question of time when Islam will cross the zambesi and enter South Africa and these gains are not made solely against paganism they are being won at the expense of African Christianity as well in West Africa the European missions lose many of their converts to Islam while across the

Continent the ancient abian church so long an outpost against Islam seems in danger of submersion by the rising Muslim tide not by warlike incursions but by peaceful penetration the absans are being islamized tribes which 50 or 60 years ago counted hardly a muhammadan among them today live partly or wholly

According to the precepts of Islam 38 Islam’s triumphs in Africa are perhaps its most noteworthy missionary victories but they by no means tell the whole story as a few instances drawn from other quarters of the Muslim world will in the previous chapter I mentioned the liberal movement among the Russian

Tartars that however was only one phase of the muhammadan Revival in that region another phase being a marked Resurgence of prelighting zeal these tars had long been under Russian Rule and the Orthodox church had made persistent efforts to convert them in some instances with apparent success but when the muhammadan

Revival reached the tartar early in the 19th century they immediately mediately began laboring with their christianized Brethren and in a short time most of these reverted to Islam despite the best efforts of the Orthodox church and the punitive measures of the Russian governmental authorities tartar missionaries also began converting the

Heathen turoff finish tribes to the northward in defiance of every hindrance from their Russian Masters 39 in China likewise the 19th century witnessed an extraordinary development of Muslim energy Islam had reached China in very early times brought in by Arab traders and bands of Arab mercenary soldiers despite centuries of

Intermarriage with Chinese women their descendants still differ perceptibly from the general Chinese population and regard themselves as a separate and Superior people the Chinese muhammadans are mainly concentrated in the southern province of yunan and the Inland provinces Beyond besides these racially Chinese Muslims another Center of muhammadan population is found in the

Chinese dependency of Eastern or Chinese turkistan inhabited by Turkish stocks and conquered by the Chinese only in the 18th century until comparatively recent times the Chinese Muslims were well treated but gradually their proudpinoy123 amans inflamed by resurgent fanaticism began a series of revolts culminating in the great rebellions which took place

About the year 1,870 both in yunan and in eastern turkistan as usual these fanaticz Muslims displayed Fierce fighting Power the turkistan rebels found an able leader one yakub and for some years both turkistan and yunan were virtually independent to many European observers at that time it looked as though the

Rebels might join hands erect a permanent mohamedan state in western China and even overrun the whole empire the fame of yakub beg spread through the Muslim world the Sultan of turkey honoring him with the high title of commander of the faithful after years of bitter fighting accompanied by frightful

Massacres the Chinese government subdued the Rebels the Chinese Muslims greatly reduced in numbers have not yet recovered their former strength but their spirit is still unbroken and today they number fully 10 million thus Chinese Islam despite its setbacks is a factor to be reckoned within the future

40 the above instances do not exhaust the list of Islam’s activities during the past Century in India for example Islam has continued to gain ground rapidly while in the Dutch Indies it is the same story 41 European domination actually favors rather than retards the spread of Islam for the Muslim finds in

Western improvements like the railroad the post office and the printing press useful adjuncts to Islamic propaganda let us now consider the second originating Center of modern Pan islamism the movement especially associated with the personality of jedin s jedin Al Afghani was born early in the 19th century at Assad abot near

Hamadan in Persia albeit as his name shows he was of afan rather than Iranian descent while his title SED meaning descendant of the Prophet implies a strain of Arab blood endowed with a keen intelligence great personal magnetism and abounding vigor Jal edin had a stormy and checkered career he was a

Great traveler knowing intimately not only most of the Muslim world but Western Europe as well from these Travels supplemented by wide reading he gained a notable fund of information which employed effectively in his manifold activities a born propagandist Jal edin attracted wide attention and wherever he went in Islam his strong

Personality started an intellectual ferment unlike El senesi he concerned himself very little with theology devoting himself to politics Jal edin was the first muhammadan who fully grasped the impending Peril of Western domination and he devoted his life to warning the Islamic world of the danger and attempting to to elaborate measures

Of Defense by European Colonial authorities he was soon singled out as a dangerous agitator the English in particular feared and persecuted him imprisoned for a while in India he went to Egypt about 1,880 and had a hand in the anti-european movement of Arabi Pasha when the English occupied Egypt in 1,

1882 they promptly expelled chol who continued his wanderings finally reaching Constantinople here he found a generous Patron in Abdul Hamid then evolving his pan-islamic policy naturally the sultan was enchanted with Chul and promptly made him the head of his pan-islamic propaganda Bureau in fact it is probable that the success of the Sultan’s

Pan-islamic policy was largely due to jal’s ability and Zeal Jal died in 1,896 at an advanced age active to the last chalin’s teachings may be summarized as follows the Christian World despite its internal differences of race and nationality is as against the East and especially as against Islam United for

The destruction of all Muhammad and states the Crusades still subsist as well as the fanatical Spirit of Peter The Hermit at heart Christendom still regards Islam with fanatical hatred and contempt this is shown in many ways as an international law before which Muslim nations are not treated as the

Equals of Christian nations Christian governments excuse the attacks and humiliations inflicted upon Muslim states by citing the latter’s backward and barbarous condition yet these same governments stifle by a thousand means even by War every attempted effort of Reform and Revival in Muslim lands hatred of Islam is common to all

Christian peoples not merely to some of them and the result of the spirit is a tacd persistent effort for Islam’s destruction every Muslim feeling and aspiration is caricatured and calumniated by Christendom the Europeans call in the orient fanaticism what at home they call nationalism and patriotism and what in the west they

Call self-respect Pride National Honor in the East they call chauvinism what in the west they esteem as National sentiment in the East they consider xenophobia 42 from all this it is plain that the whole Muslim world must unite in a great defensive Alliance to preserve itself

From destruction and to do this it must acquire the technique of Western progress and learn the secrets of European power such in brief are the teachings of jedin propagated with eloquence and Authority for many years given the state of mingled fear and hatred of Western encroachment that was steadily spreading throughout the Muslim

World it is easy to see how great jal’s influence must have been and of course Jal was not alone in his preaching other influential Muslims were agitating along much the same lines as early as the middle of the 19th century one of these Pioneers was the Turkish notable alip

Pasha who was said to remark what we want is rather an increase of fanaticism than a diminution of it 43 armenius vur the eminent Hungarian Oriental scholar states that shortly after the Crimean War he was present at a militant pan Islamic Gathering attended by emissaries from Far parts of the Muslim World held

At alip pases Palace 44 such were the foundations upon which Sultan Abdul Hamid built his ambitious pan-islamic structure Abdul Hamid is one of the strangest personalities of modern times a man of unusual intelligence his mind was yet warped by strange twists which went to the verge of insanity nursing ambitious grandiose projects he

Tried to carry them out by dark and tortuous methods which though often cleverly macki of ellian were sometimes absurdly pure ill an autocrat by Nature he strove to keep the smallest decisions dependent on his arbitrary will albeit he was frequently Guided by clever sycophants who knew how to play upon his

Superstitions and his prejudices Abdul Hamid ascended the throne in 1,876 under very difficult circumstances the country was on the verge of a disastrous Russian war while the government was in the hands of Statesmen who were endeavoring to transform turkey into a modern State and who had introduced all sorts of Western

Political Innovations including a parliament Abdul Hamid however soon changed all this taking advantage of the confusion which marked the close of the Russian war he abolished Parliament and made himself as absolute A desperate as any of his ancestors had ever been secure in his autocratic power Abdul

Hamid now began to evolve his own peculiar policy which from the first had a distinctly pan-islamic Trend 45 unlike his immediate predecessors Abdul Hamid determined to use his position as Calef for far-reaching political ends emphasizing his spiritual headship of the muhammadan world rather than his political headship of the

Turkish State he endeavored to win the active support of all Muslims and by that support to intimidate European powers who might be formulating aggressive measures against the Ottoman Empire before long Abdul Hamid had built up an elaborate pan-islamic propaganda organization working mainly by secretive tortuous methods Constantinople became

The mecca of all the Fanatics and anti-western agitators like Jal Edan and from Constantinople there went forth swarms of picked emissaries bearing to the most distant parts of Islam the cff’s message of Hope and impending deliverance from the Menace of infidel rule Abdul hamid’s pan-islamic propaganda went on uninterruptedly for

Nearly 30 years precisely what this propaganda accomplished is very difficult to estimate in the first place it was cut short and to some extent reversed by the Young Turk resolution of 1908 which drove Abdul Hamid from the throne it certainly was never put to the

Test of a war between turkey and a first class European power this is what renders any theoretical appraisal so inconclusive Abdul Hamid did succeed in gaining the respectful acknowledgement of his Spiritual Authority by most Muslim princes and notables and he certainly won the pious veneration of the Muslim masses in the most distant

Regions men came to regard the mighty caleff in stambul as in very truth the defender of the faith and to consider his Empire as The Bull workk of Islam on the other hand it is a far cry from Pious enthusiasm to practical performance furthermore Abdul Hamid did not succeed in winning over powerful

Pan-islamic leaders like El senesi who suspected his motives and questioned his judgment while Muslim liberals everywhere disliked him for his despotic reactionary inefficient rule it is thus a very debatable question whether if Abdul Hamid had ever called upon the Muslim world for armed assistance in a holy war he would have been generally

Supported yet Abdul Hamid undoubtedly furthered the general spread of pan Islamic sentiment throughout the Muslim World in this larger sense he succeeded albeit not so much from his position as caleff as because he incarnated the growing fear and hatred of the West thus we may conclude that Abdul hamid’s pan-islamic propaganda did produce

Profound and lasting effects which will have to be seriously reckoned with the Young Turk revolution of 1908 greatly complicated the situation it was soon followed by the Persian Revolution and by Kindred symptoms in other parts of the East these events brought into sudden prominence new forces such as constitutionalism nationalism and even

Social unrest which had long been obscurely germinating in Islam but which had been previously denied expression we shall later consider these new forces in detail the point to be here noted is their complicating effect on on the pan Islamic movement pan islamism was in fact Crosscut and deflected from its

Previous course and a period of confusion and mental uncertainty supervened this interim period was short by 1912 pen islamism had recovered its Poise and was moving forward once more the reason was renewed pressure from the West in 1911 came Italy’s barefaced raid on turkey’s African dependency of Tripoli while in 1912 the Allied

Christian Balan States attacked turkey in the Balkan War which sheared away turkey’s European provinces to the very walls of Constantin opal and left her crippled and discredited moreover in those same fateful years Russia and England strangled the Persian Revolution while France as a result of the agader

Crisis closed her grip on Morocco thus in a scan 2 years the Muslim world had suffered at European hands assaults not only unprecedented in Gra but in Muslim eyes quite without provocation the effect upon Islam was tremendous a flood of mingled Despair and rage swept the Muslim World from end

To end and of course the pan-islamic implication was obvious this was precisely what pan Islam’s agitators had been preaching for 50 years the crusade of the West for Islam’s destruction what could be better confirmation of the warnings of jedin the result were soon seen in Tripoli where Turks and Arabs had been

On the worst of terms both races clasped hands in a sudden access of pan-islamic fervor and the Italian Invaders were met with a fanatical Fury that roused Islam to Wild Applause and inspired Western observers with grave disquietude why has Italy found defenseless Tripoli such a hornet’s nest

Quered Gabriel on auto a former French Minister of Foreign Affairs it is because she has to do not not merely with turkey but with Islam as well Italy has set the ball rolling so much the worse for her and for us all 46 the anglo-russian man handling of Persia

Likewise roused much wrathful comment throughout Islam 47 while the impending Extinction of Moroccan Independence at French hands was discussed with mournful indignation but with the coming of the Balkan War the wrath of Islam knew no bounds from China to the Congo Pious Muslims watched with baited breath the

SW battle lines in the far off Balkans and when the news of Turkish disaster came Islam’s Cry of wrathful Anguish Rose horse and high a prominent Indian Muhammad and well expressed the feelings of his Co religionists everywhere when he wrote the king of Greece orders a new Crusade from the London Chancellor’s

Rise calls to Christian fanaticism and St Petersburg already speaks of the planting of the cross on the Dome of s Sophia today they speak thus tomorrow they will thus speak of Jerusalem and the mosque of Omar brothers be yet of one mind that it is the duty of every

True Believer to hasten beneath the Khalifa’s banner and to sacrifice his life for the safety of the faith 48 and another Indian Muslim leader thus adjured the British authorities I appeal to the present government to change its anti-turkish attitude before the fury of millions of Muslim fellow subjects is

Kindled to a blaze and brings disaster 49 most significant of of all worthy appeals made at this time by Muslims to non- Muhammad and asiatics for sympathy and solidarity against the hated West this was a development as unprecedented as it was startling Muhammad revering as he did

The Old and New Testaments and regarding himself as the successor of the divinely inspired prophets Moses and Jesus had enjoined upon his followers relative respect for Christians and Jews peoples of the book in contrast with other non-muslims whom he s matized as idolators these injunctions of the

Prophet had always been heeded and down to our own days the hatred of Muslims for Christians however bitter had been as nothing compared with their loathing and contempt for idolators like the brahmanist Hindus or the Buddhists and confusionists of the Far East the first symptom of a change in Attitude appeared

During the Russo Japanese war of 1904 so great had Islam’s fear and hatred of the Christian West then become that the triumph of an Asiatic people over Europeans was enthusiastically hailed by many Muslims even though the victors were idolators it was quite in keeping with pan islamism strong missionary vent that

Many Pious Muslims should have dreamed of bringing these Heroes within the Islamic fold efforts to get in touch with Japan were made propagandist papers were founded missionaries were selected and the sultan sent a warship to Japan with a pan-islamic delegation aboard throughout Islam the projected conversion of Japan was widely discussed

Said an Egyptian journal in the year 1906 England with her 60 million Indian Muslims dreads this conversion with a Mohammad and Japan musman policy would change entirely 50 and at the other end of the Muslim World a Chinese Mohammad and shik wrote If Japan thinks of becoming someday a very great power and

Making Asia the Dominator of the other continents it will be only by adopting the Blessed religion of Islam 51 of course it soon became plain to these enthusiasts that while Japan received Islam’s emissaries with smiling courtesy she had not the faintest intention of turning muhammadan nevertheless the first step had been

Taken towards friendly relations with non-muslim Asia and the Balkan War drove Muslims much further in this direction the change in Muslim sentiment can be gauged by the numerous appeals made by the Indian and muhammadans at this time to Hindus as may be seen from the following sample entitled significantly

The message of the East Spirit of the East reads this noteworthy document arise and repel the swelling flood of Western aggression children of Hindustan Aid us with your wisdom culture and wealth lend us your power the birthright and Heritage of the Hindu let the spirit Powers hidden in the Himalayan mountain

Peaks arise let prayers to the god of battles float upward prayers that right May triumph over might and call to your Myriad Gods to annihilate the armies of the foe 52 to anyone who realizes the traditional Muslim attitude towards idolators such words are simply amazing they boken a veritable revolution in

Outlook and such sentiments were not confined to Indian Muslims they were equally evident among Chinese Muslims as well said a muhammadan newspaper of Chinese turkistan advocating a fraternal Union of all Chinese against Western aggression Europe has grown too presumptuous it will deprive us of our Liberty it will destroy us altogether if

We do not bester ourselves promptly and prepare for a powerful resistance 53 during the troublous first stages of the Chinese Revolution the muhammadans emerging from their sulky aloofness Co operated so loyally with their Buddhist and Confucian fellow Patriots that Dr sunat Sen the Republican leader announced gratefully the Chinese will never forget the

Assistance which their Muslim fellow countrymen have rendered in the interest of order and Liberty 54 the Great War thus found Islam everywhere deeply stirred against European aggression keenly conscious of its own solidarity and frankly reaching out for Asiatic allies in the projected struggle against European domination under these circumstances it

May at First Sight appear strange that no General is Islamic explosion occurred when turkey entered the lists at the close of 1914 and the sultan caleff issued a formal summons to the holy war of course this summons was not the flat failure which Allied reports led the

West to believe at the time as a matter of fact there was trouble in practically every muhammadan land under Allied control to name only a few of many instances Egypt broke into a tumult smothered only by overwhelming British reinforcements Tripoli burst into a flame of Insurrection that drove the

Italians headlong to the coast Persia was prevented from joining turkey only by prompt Russo British intervention while the Indian Northwest Frontier was the scene of fighting that required the presence of a quarter of a million anglo-indian troops the British government has officially admitted that during 1915 the Allies Asiatic and

African possessions stood within a hands breadth of a cataclysmic Insurrection that Insurrection would certainly have taken place if Islam’s leaders had everywhere spoken the Fateful word but the word was not spoken instead influential Muslims outside of turkey generally condemned the latter’s action and did all in their power to

Calm the passions of The Fanatic multitude the attitude of these leaders does credit to their discernment they recognized that this was neither the time nor the occasion for a decisive struggle with the West they were not yet materially prepared and they had not perfected their understandings either among themselves

Or with their prospective non-muslim allies above all the moral urge was lacking they knew that a thwart the Khalifa rid was stencil made in Germany they knew that the Young Turk cleck which had engineered the coup was made up of europeanized Renegades many of them not even nominal Muslims but

Atheistic Jews farsighted Muslims had no intention of pulling Germany’s chess nuts out of the fire nor did they wish to further Prussian schemes of world Dominion which for themselves would have met a mere change of Masters far better to let the West fight out its desperate Feud weaken itself and

Reveal fully its future intentions meanwhile Islam could bite its time grow in strength and await the morrow the versai peace conference was just such a revelation of European intentions as the pan Islamic leaders had been waiting for in order to perfect their programs and enlist the moral solidarity of their followers at Versa

The European powers showed unequivocal that they had no intention of relaxing their hold upon the near and Middle East by a number of secret treaties negotiated during the war the Ottoman Empire had been virtually partitioned between the Victorious allies and these secret treaties formed the basis of the Versa settlement furthermore Egypt had

Been declared a British protectorate at the very beginning of the war while the Versa conference had scarcely adjourned before England announced an agreement with Persia which made that country another British protectorate in fact if not in name the upshot was as already stated that the near and Middle East

Were subjected to European political domination as never before but there was another side to the shield during the War years the Allied Statesmen had officially proclaimed times without number that the war was being fought to establish a new world order based on such principles as the rights of small

Nations and the liberty of All Peoples these pronouncements had been treasured and memorized throughout the east when therefore the East saw a peace settlement based not upon these high professions but upon the imperialistic secret treaties it was fired with a moral indignation and sense of outrage Justice never known before a tide of

Impassion determination began Rising which has set already the entire East in tumultuous ferment and which seems merely the premonitory ground swell of a greater storm so ominous were the portents that even before the Versa conference had adjourned many European students of Eastern Affairs expressed grave alarm here for example is the

Judgment of leonan Duke of Sera and Italian Authority on muhammadan questions speaking in the spring of 1919 on the war’s effect on the East he said the convulsion has shaken Islamic and Oriental civilization to its foundations the entire Oriental World from China to the Mediterranean is INF ferment everywhere the hidden fire of

Anti-european hatred is burning riots in Morocco risings in alar discontent in Tripoli so-called nationalist attempts in Egypt Arabia and Libya are all different manifestations of the same deep sentiment and have as their object the rebellion of the Oriental World against European civilization 55 those words are a prophetic forecast

Of what has since occurred in the Muslim world because recent events are perhaps even more involved with the nationalistic aspirations of the Muslim peoples than they are with the strictly pan-islamic movement I proposed to defer their detailed discussion till the chapter on nationalism we should however remember that Muslim nationalism and pan islamism

Whatever their internal differences tend to unite against the external pressure of European domination and equally desire Islam’s Liberation from European political control remembering these facts Let Us survey the present condition of the pan-islamic movement pan-islamism has been tremendously stimulated by Western pressure especially by the late War and the recent peace

Settlements however pan islamism must not be considered as merely a defensive political reaction against external aggression it Springs primarily from that deep sentiment of unity which links Muslim to Muslim by bonds much stronger than those which unite the members of the Christian World these bonds are are not merely religious in the technical

Sense they are social and cultural as well throughout the Muslim World despite wide differences in local customs and regulations the basic laws of family and social conduct are everywhere the same the truth is that Islam is more than a Creed it is a complete social system it

Is a civilization with a philosophy a culture and an art of its own in its long struggle against the Rival civilization of Christendom it has become an Oran IC unit conscious of itself 56 to this Islamic civilization all Muslims are deeply attached in this larger sense pan islamism is universal

Even the most liberal-minded Muslims however much they may welcome Western ideas and however strongly they may condemn the fanatical reactionary aspects of the political pan-islamic movement believe fervently in Islam’s essential solidarity as a leading Indian Muslim liberal the a con remarks there is a right and legitimate pan islamism to

Which every sincere and believing muhammadan belongs that is the theory of the spiritual Brotherhood and unity of the children of the Prophet the real spiritual and cultural Unity of Islam must ever grow for to the follower of the Prophet it is the foundation of the life and the Soul

57 if such is the attitude of Muslim liberals thoroughly conversant with Western culture and receptive to Western progress what must be the feelings of the Muslim masses ignorant reactionary and fanatical besides perfectly understandable fear and hatred due to Western aggression there is among the Muslim masses a great deal of genuine

Fanaticism caused not by European political domination but by religious bigotry and blind hatred of Western Civilization 58 but this fanaticism has of course been greatly inflamed by the itical events of the past decade until today religious cultural and political hatred of the West have coalesced in a

State of mind decidedly ominous for the Peace of the world we should not delude ourselves into minimizing the dangerous possibilities of the present situation just because the fake holy war proclaimed by The Young Turks at German instigation in 1914 did not come off is no reason for believing that a real holy

War is impossible as a German staff off officer in Turkish service during the late struggle very candidly says the holy war was an absolute Fiasco just because it was not a holy war 59 I have already explained how most Muslims saw through the trick and refus to budge however the

Long series of European aggressions culminating in the recent peace settlements which subjected virtually the entire Muslim world to European domination have been steadily rousing in Muslim hearts a spirit of despairing rage that may have disastrous consequences certainly the materials for a holy war have long been heaping High

More than 20 years ago armenius vur who knew the Muslim world as few Europeans have ever known it warn the west of the perils engendered by recklessly imperialistic policies as time passes he wrote in 1,898 the danger of a general War becomes ever greater we should not forget that time has considerably

Augmented the adversaries force of resistance I mean by this the sentiment of solidarity which is becoming livelier of late years among the peoples of Islam and which in our age of Rapid communication is no longer a negligible quantity as it was even 10 or 20 years

Ago it may not be Superfluous to draw the attention of our 19th century Crusaders to the importance of the Muslim press whose ramifications extend all over Asia and Africa and whose exhortations sink more profoundly than they do with us into the Souls of their readers in Turkey India Persia Central

Asia Java Egypt and Algeria native organs daily and periodical begin to exert a profound influence everything that Europe thinks decides and executes against Islam spreads through those countries with the rapidity of lightning Caravans carry the news to the heart of China and to the equator where the tidings are commented

Upon in very singular fashion certain Sparks struck at our meetings and banquets Kindle little by little menacing Flames hence it would be an unpardonable leg righty to close our eyes to the dangers lurking beneath an apparent passivity what the Turan of Crimea says between the lines is

Repeated by the Constantin opal ium and is commented on and exaggerated at Kolkata by the Muslim Chronicle of course at present the bond of pen islamism is composed of tenuous and dispersed strands but Western aggression might easily unite those strands into a solid hole bringing about a general war. 60 in

The decades which have elapsed since vur wrote those lines the situation has become much more tense Muslim resentment at European dominance has increased has been reinforced by nationalistic aspirations almost unknown during the last century and possesses methods of Highly efficient propaganda for example the pan Islamic press to which vur refer

Has developed in truly extraordinary fashion in 1900 there were in the whole Islamic world not more than 200 propagandist journals by 1906 there were 500 while in 1914 there were well over 1,61 Muslims fully appreciate the post office the railroad and other modern methods of rapidly interchanging ideas

Every Muslim country is in communication with every other Muslim country directly by means of special emissaries pilgrims Travelers Traders and postal exchanges indirectly by means of mohammadan newspapers books pamphlets leaflets and periodicals I have met with Cairo newspapers in Baghdad tan and pesha War Constantinople newspapers in bosr and

Bombay kutan newspapers in mamarra kerbala and Port Said 62 as for the professional pan-islamic propagandist more particularly those of the religious fraternities they swarm everywhere rousing the fanaticism of the people traveling under a thousand disguises as Merchants preachers students doctors workmen Beggars fakers Mount of banks pretended fools or rapists these

Emissaries are everywhere well received by the faithful and are efficaciously protected against the suspicious investigations of the European Colonial authorities 63 furthermore there is today in the Muslim World a widespread conviction held by liberals and chauvinists alike albeit for very different reasons that Islam is entering on a period of

Renaissance and renewed Glory says sir Theodore Morrison no mohammadan believes that Islamic civilization is dead or incapable of further development they recognize that it has fallen on evil days that it has suffered from an excessive veneration of the past from prejudice and bigotry and narrow scholasticism not unlike that which

Obscured European thought in the Middle Ages but they believe that Islam 2o is about to have its Renaissance that it is receiving from Western learning a stimulus which will Quicken it into fresh activity and that the evidences of this new life are everywhere manifest 64 sir Theodore Morrison describes the

Attitude of Muslim liberals how pen islamists with anti-western sentiments feel is well set forth by an Ian yayas sidak in his well-known book The Awakening of the Islamic peoples in the 14th century of the Hijra 65 the book is doubly interesting because the author has a thorough Western education holding

A law degree from the French University of tulus and is a judge on the Egyptian bench although writing nearly a decade before the cataclysm Yaya Sida clearly foresaw the imminence of the European War behold he writes these great powers ruining themselves in terrifying armaments measuring each other’s strength with defiant glances menacing

Each other Contracting alliances which continually break and which pressage those terrible shocks which overturn the world and cover it with ruins Fire and Blood the future is God’s and nothing is lasting save his will yayaa considers the Western World degenerate does this mean he asks that Europe our enlightened guide has already

Reached the summit of its Evolution has it already exhausted its vital force by two or three centuries of hyper exertion in other words is it already stricken with senility and will it see itself soon obliged to yield its civilizing role to other peoples less degenerate less neurasthenic that is to say younger

More robust more healthy than itself in my opinion the present marks Europe’s apigy and its immoderate Colonial expansion means not strength but weakness despite the oral of so much Grandeur power and Glory Europe is today more divided and more fragile than ever and Ill conceals its males its

Sufferings and its anguish its Destiny is inexorably working out the contact of Europe on the East has caused us both much good and much evil good in the material and intellectual sense evil from the moral and political point of view exhausted by long struggles innervated by a brilliant civilization

The Muslim peoples inevitably fell into a Mala but they are not stricken they are not dead these peoples conquered by the force of Cannon have not in the least lost their Unity even under the oppressive regimes to which the Europeans have long subjected them I have said that the European contact has

Been salutary to us from both the material and intellectual point of view what reforming Muslim princes wish to impose by force on their Muslim subjects is today realized a h hundredfold so great has been our progress in the last 25 years in science letters and art that we may well hope to

Be in all these things the equals of Europe in less than half a century a new era opens for us with the 14th century of the hijara and this happy Century will Mark our Renaissance and our great future a new breath animates the muhammadan peoples of all Races all

Muslims are penetrated with the necessity of work and instruction we all wish to travel do business temp Fortune Brave dangers there is in the East among the muhammadans a surprising activity an animation unknown 25 years ago there is today a real public opinion throughout the East the author concludes let us

Hold firm each for all and let us hope hope hope we are fairly launched on the path of progress let us profit by it it is Europe’s very tyranny which has wrought our transformation it is our continued contact with Europe that favors our Evolution and inevitably hastens our

Revival it is simply history repeating itself the will of God fulfilling itself despite all opposition and all resistance Europe’s tutelage over asiatics is becoming more and more nominal the gates of Asia are closing against the European surely we glim before us a revolution without parallel

In the world’s annals a new age is at hand if this was the way pan islamists were thinking in the opening years of the century it is clear that their views must have been confirmed and intensified by the Great War 66 the material power of the West Was thereby greatly reduced

While its Prestige was equally sapped by the character of the peace settlement and by the attendant disputes which broke Out Among the victors the mutual rivalries and jealousies of England France Italy and their satellites in the East have given Muslims much food for hopeful thought and have caused corresponding disquietude in European

Minds a French publicist recently admonished his fellow Europeans that Islam does not recognize our Colonial Frontiers and added warningly the great movement of Islamic Union inaugurated by jedin Al Afghani is going on 67 the menacing temper of Islam is shown by the Furious agitation which has been

Going on for the last 3 years among India’s 70 million Muslims against the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire this agitation is not confined to India it is General throughout Islam and Sir Theodore Morrison does not overstate the case when he says it is time the British public realized the gravity of what is

Happening in the East the mohammadan world is Ablaze with anger from end to end at the partition of turkey the outbreaks of violence in centers so far remote As kaval and KY are symptoms only of this widespread resentment I have been in close touch with muhammadans of

India for close upon 30 years and I think it is my duty to warn the British public of the passionate resentment which Muslims feel at the proposed dismemberment of the Turkish Empire the diplomats at Versa apparently thought that outside the Turkish homelands there is no sympathy for turkey this is a

Disastrous blunder you have but to meet the muhammadan now in London to realize the white heat to which their anger is rising ing in India itself the whole of the muhammadan community from Peshawar to aret is seething with passion upon this subject women inside the zenanas are Weeping over it Merchants who

Usually take no interest in public affairs are leaving their shops and Counting houses to organize remonstrances and petitions even the medieval theologians of doand and the nadwatul whose Detachment from the modern world is proverbial are coming from their cloysters to protest against the destruction of Islam 68 possibly the most serious aspect of

The situation is that the Muslim Liberals are being driven into the camp of political pan islamism receptive though the Liberals are to Western ideas and averse though they are to pan islamism chauvinistic reactionary Tendencies Europe’s intransigence is forcing them to make at least a temporary alliance with the pan Islamic

And nationalist groups even though the Liberals know that anything like a holy war would dig a gulf between East and West stop the influx of Western stimuli favor reactionary fanaticism and perhaps postpone for Generations a modernist Reformation of Islam Perhaps it is symptomatic of a more bellicose temper

In Islam that the last few years have witness the rapid spread of two new Puritan fanatic movements the Ian and the salopia the Ian movement began obscurely about 10 years ago in inner Arabia the Ned it is a direct outgrowth of wahabism from which it differs in no

Essential respect so rapid has been aismk progress that it today absolutely dominates the entire Ned and it is headed by desert Arabia’s most powerful Chieftain Ben sahud a descendant of the sahud who headed the wahhab movement 100 years ago the fanaticism of the eans is said to be extraordinary while their

Program is the old wahab dream of a Puritan conversion of the whole Islamic World 69 as for the Sala movement it started in India even more of obscurely than eonism did in Arabia but during the past few years it has spread widely through Islam like eonism it is

Puritanical and fanatical in spirit its adherence being found especially among dervish organizations 70 such phenomena taken with everything else do not augur well for the Peace of the East so much for pan islamism religious and political sides now let us glance at its commercial and Industrial aspects at

What may be called economic pan islamism economic pan islamism is the direct result of the permeation of Western ideas half a century ago the Muslim world was economically still in the Middle Ages the provisions of the sharat or Muslim canon law such as the prohibition of Interest rendered

Economic life in the modern sense impossible what little trade and Industry did exist was largely in the hands of native Christians or Jews furthermore the whole economic life of the East was being disorganized by the aggressive competition of the West Europe’s political conquest of the Muslim world was in fact paralleled by

An economic Conquest even more complete everywhere percolated the flood of cheap abundant European machine-made Goods while Clos behind came European Capital temptingly offering itself in return for loans and concessions which once granted paved the way for European political domination yet in econom ICS as in politics the very completeness of

Europe’s Triumph provoked resistance angered and alarmed by Western exploitation Islam frankly recognized its economic inferiority and sought to escape from its subjection farsighted Muslims began casting about for a modus vendi with Modern Life that would put Islam economically a breast of the times Western methods were studied and copied

The prohibitions of the sharat were evaded or quietly ignored the upshot has been a marked Evolution toward Western economic standards this evolution is of course still in its early stages and is most noticeable in lands most exposed to Western influences like India Egypt and Algeria yet everywhere in the mlim world

The trend is the same the details of this economic transformation will be discussed in the chapter devoted to economic change what we are here concerned with is its pan-islamic aspect and that aspect is very strong nowhere does Islam’s innate solidarity come out better than in the economic field the religious cultural

And customary ties which bind Muslim to Muslim enable muhammadans to feel more or less at home in every part of the Islamic World while Western methods of Transit and communication enable muhammadans to travel and keep in touch as they never could before new types of Muslims wholesale Merchants steam ship

Owners businessmen Bankers even Factory industrialists and Brokers are rapidly evolving types which would have been simply Unthinkable a century or even half a century ago and these new men understand each other perfectly bound together both by the ties of Islamic fraternity and by the pressure of Western competition they see ordinate

Their efforts much more easily than politicals have succeeded in doing here liberals pan islamists and nationalists can meet on Common Ground here is no no question of political conspiracies revolts or Holy Wars challenging the armed might of Europe and risking bloody repression or blind reaction on the contrary here is merely a working

Together of fellow Muslims for economic Ends by business methods which the West cannot declare unlawful and dare not repress what then is the specific program of economic pen islamism it is easily stated the wealth of Islam for Muslims the profits of trade and Industry for Muslim instead of Christian

Hands the eviction of Western Capital by Muslim capital above all the breaking of Europe’s grip on Islam’s Natural Resources by the termination of concessions in lands mines forests Railways custom houses by which the wealth of Islamic lands is today drained away to foreign Shores such are the aspirations of economic pan islamism

They are holy modern Concepts the outgrowth of those Western ideas whose influence upon the Muslim world I shall now discuss 71 footnotes 25 Islam has not only won much ground in India brahmanism Homeland but has also converted virtually the entire populations of the great islands of java and Sumatra where brahmanism was

Formerly ascendant 26 the small Pary communities of India centering in Bombay are the sole surviving representatives of Zoroastrianism they were founded by zoroastrian refugees after the muhammadan conquest of Persia in the 7th Century ad 27 though Mecca is forbidden to non-muslims a few Europeans have managed to make the Haj in Disguise and

Have written their impressions of these snook her gr’s Mecca two volumes the heg 1,888 and had mechin Feast lien 1,889 are the most recent good works also see Burton and birkart a recent account of value from the pen of a muhammadan liberal is gizen far Ali Khan with the

Pilgrims to Mecca the great pilgrimage of ah 1,39 ad 1902 with an introduction by armenius vur London 1905 28 the Shiite Persians of course refus to recognize any sunnite or Orthodox caliphate while the Moors pay spiritual allegiance to their own sharifi and sultants 29 the Turkish name for

Constantinople 30 on the caliphate C Sir W mu the caliphate its rise Decline and fall Edinburgh 1915 Sir Mark Sykes the ciff’s last Heritage London 1915 XX L Islam AE ler review to Paris January 15th 19 1916 the Indian CIT delegation Foreign Affairs July 1920 special supplement 31 literally he who is guided

A right 32 sad means Lord this title is born only by descendants of the Prophet 33 the Explorer Dr nigal 34 on the Islamic fraternities in general and the sen Y in particular CWS blunt the future of Islam l 1,882 odap pant and ex kolani Leon F’s religio as musulman Paris

1,897 H duer Lan friy musulman at a CD Mohammad Ben Ali es iny Paris 1,884 a chatelier leon F’s musulman DOI Jazz Paris 1,887 ELP con’s musulmans Paris 1,899 elrin marabu tkin alers 1,884 a serier Le nationalism of musulman Constantine Algeria 1913 Simeon Leon F’s islami and algeri algers 1910

Ammed Abdullah himself ay the seny yes the four Forum May 1914 a Calhoun pen Islam North American review June 1906 TR thrall senosi and his threatened holy war 19th century March 1900 Captain ha Wilson the Muslim Menace 19th century and after September 1907 LA puis to L Islam SC confies

Religioes Le correspondent November 25th and December 10th 1909 the above judgments particularly regarding the sen yaah very greatly some being highly alarmist others minimizing its importance a full balancing of the entire subject is that of commandant Binger L Peril de L Islam bullet and duite de L afri France says

1902 personal interviews of educated Muslims with El RSI Mohammad lash Shia T expansion Colony Ali Fran say 1900 Muhammad IBN utman Voyage oia Traverse La triol translated from the Arabic Paris 1903 35 on Muslim missionary activity in general C Jansen verria Tang day Islams Berlin 1,897 mtown and Asia and Europe Pages 46

To 49 60-61 81 Al shat Lis lamod Dix noima Paris 1,888 various papers in the mamad and world today London 1906 36tr thrall sinusi and his threatened holy war 19th century March 1900 37 a forget L Islam etle e christianism adans l Afric Central p65 Paris 1900 for other statements regarding

Muslim missionary activity in Africa CG Bonet Mori el islamis mle e christianism in Afric Paris 1906 ew Blen Christianity Islam and the Negro race London 1,887 forget open pcit 38 ainat L Islam L abini review Dand musulman 1918 also see similar opinion of the Protestant missionary K cederquist Islam

And Christianity in abisinia the Muslim World April 1921 39 s bronnikov Muslims in Russia the Muslim World January 1911 40 broomhall Islam in China London 1910 neand Note sirman chinoa review Dand musulman January 1907 paper on Islam in China in the muhammadan world today London

1906 41 C papers on Islam in Jabba and Sumatra in the muhammadan world today London 1906 aatan Java Sumatra and the Dutch East Indies transl at ated from the Dutch New York 1916 42 quoted from article by x l e panis lamis mle pan turkism review Dand musulman March

1913 this authoritative article is so the editor informs us from the pen of an eminent Mohammad and anamu San for other activities of JAL edin CA serier Le nationalism of musulman pages 10 to3 43 quoted from WG palgrave essays on Eastern questions P 111 London 1,872 44 a amury western culture in

Eastern lands p351 London 1906 45 Abdul hamid’s pan Islamic schemes were first clearly discerned by the French publicist Gabriel charms as early as 1,800 81 and his warnings were published in his prophetic book lavenir de la turkey L pan islamism Paris 10883 46 Gabriel Ono La Christ Mediterranean ETL Islam review HEB doer

April 13th 1912 47 CX law situation politique the LA Pur review Dand musulman June 1914 B Temple the place of Persia in World politics proceedings of the Central Asian Society May 4th 1910 WM Shuster the Strangling of Persia New York 1912 48 quoted from a amury DI Turkish

Catastrophe un di Islam welt Deutsche review July 1913 49 sha Mohammad naimatullah recent Turkish events and Muslim India Asiatic review October 1913 50 quoted by F far Janel L EJ ponl Islam review Dand musulman November 1906 51 far janal Supra 52 quoted by vur Supra 53 vur an approach between Muslims

And Buddhists 19th century and after April 1912 54 vur an approach between Muslims and Buddhists 19th century and after April 1912 55 special cable to the New York Times dated Rome May 28th 1919 56 CT Morrison England and Islam 19th century and after July 1919 57 HH the agac con India in

Transition P1 58 London 1918 58 this hatred of Western Civilization as such will be discussed in the next chapter 59 Ernst parquin formerly ottoman Lieutenant Colonel and chief of general staff in the Berliner Tage blat January 24th 1920 60 a amury la turkey D AER H ETD aan KS Pages 7172 Paris

1,898 61 a serier Le nationalism of musulman P 1882 62b Temple the place of Persia in World politics proceedings of the Central Asian Society May 1910 63 Elin marabu etkin P6 64 sir T Morrison England and Islam opci 65 y Dees islami elh Cairo 1907 also published in Arabic 66 for a

Full discussion of the effect of the Great War upon Asiatic and African peoples see my book The Rising tide of color against white World Supremacy New York and London 1920 67 El m l Islam laati Ally review day Sciences po Cas June 1920 68 sir T Morrison England and Islam op

CIT 69 for the iin movement CPW Harrison the situation in Arabia Atlantic Monthly December 1920 s mria the Politico religious situation in Arabia the Muslim World July 1919 74 for the salv movement C wahabism son of anir sociali etle movement salv review Dand musulman 1919 71 on the general subject of

Economic pan islamism c chatelier l revil l Islam sa situation Economic Review economic International July 1910 also his article politique musulman review Dand musulman September 1910 mthal law morale Islamic review politi International July 1916 S kab Bookshare essays Indian and Islamic London 1912 chapter 3 the influence of the West

The influence of the West is the great dynamic in the modern transformation of the East the ubiquitous impact of westernism is modifying not merely the Islamic world but all non-muslim Asia and Africa 72 and in subsequent Pages we shall examine the effects of Western influence upon the non-muslim elements

Of India of course Western influence does not entirely account for Islam’s recent Evolution we have already seen that for the last 100 years Islam itself has been engendering forces which however quickened by external Western stimuli are essentially internal in their nature arising spontaneously and working toward distinctive original goals

It is not a mere copying of the West that is today going on in the Muslim world but an attempt at a new synthesis and assimilation of Western methods to Eastern ends we must always remember that the Asiatic stocks which constitute the bulk of Islam’s followers are not primitive Savages like the African

Negroes or the ostds but are mainly peoples with genuine civilizations built up by their own efforts from the remote past in view of their historic achievements therefore it seems safe to to conclude that in the great ferment now stirring the Muslim world we Behold a real Renaissance whose genuine is best

Attested by the fact that there have been similar movements in former times the modern influence of the West on the East is quite unprecedented in both intensity and scope the far more local partial influence of Greece and Rome cannot be compared to it another point to be noted is that this modern

Influence of the West upon the East is a very recent thing the full impact of westernism upon the Orient as a whole dates only from about the middle of the 19th century since then however the process has been going on by Leaps and Bounds roads and Railways posts and

Telegraphs books and papers methods and ideas have penetrated or are in process of penetrating every nook and cranny of the East steam ships sail the remotest Seas Commerce drives forth and scatters the multitudinous product of Western industry among the remotest peoples Nations which only half a century ago

Lived the life of 30 centuries ago today read newspapers and go to business in electric tram cars both the habits and thoughts of orientals are being revolutionized to a discussion of the influence of the West upon the Muslim world the remainder of this book will be devoted the chief elements will be

Separately analyzed in subsequent chapters the present chapter being a General survey of an introdu character the permeation of westernism is naturally most advanced in those parts of Islam which have been longest under Western political control the penetration of the British Raj into the remotest Indian jungles for example is an extraordinary

Phenomenon by the coinage the post office the railroads the administration of justice the encouragement of Education the relief of famine and a thousand other ways the great organization has penetrated all India but even in regions where European control is still nominal the permeation of westernism has gone on a pace the

Customs and habits of the people have been distinctly modified Western Material improvements and Comforts like the kerosene oil lamp and the sewing machine are today part and parcel of the daily life of the people New Economic wants have been created standards of living have been raised Cannons of taste have been altered 73

In the intellectual and spiritual Fields likewise the leav of westernism is clearly apparent we have already seen how profoundly Muslim liberal reformers have been influenced by Western ideas and the spirit of Western progress of course in these fields westernism has progressed more slowly and has awakened much stronger opposition than it has on

The material plane material Innovations especially mechanical improvements Comforts and luxuries make their way much faster than novel Customs or ideas which usually shock established beliefs or ancestral prejudices tobacco was taken up with extraordinary rapidity by every race and climb and the kerosene lamp has in half a century penetrated the recesses of

Central Asia and of China whereas Customs like western dress and ideas like Western education encounter many setbacks and are often adopted with such modifications that their original spirit is denatured or perverted the superior strength and skill of the West are today generally admitted throughout the East but in many quarters the first

Receptivity to Western progress and Zeal for Western ideas have cooled or have actually given place to a reactionary hatred of the very Spirit of Western Civilization 74 Western influences are most apparent in the upper and middle classes especially in the western educated intelligencia which today exists in every Eastern land these Elites of

Course vary greatly in numbers and influence but they all possess a more or less definite grasp of Western ideas in their reactions to westernism they are sharply differentiated some while retaining the fundamentals of their ancestral philosophy of Life attempt a genuine assimilation of Western ideals and envisage a higher synthesis of the

Spirits of east and west others break with their traditional pasts steep themselves in westernism and become more or less genuinely westernized still others conceal behind their Western veneer disillusionment and detestation 75 of course it is in externals that westernization is most pronounced the Indian or Turkish intellectual holding Western University degrees and speaking

Fluently several European languages and the wealthy Prince or pasia with his Motor Cars his Racing Stables and his annual cure at European watering places appear very accidental to the Casual eye such men wear European clothes eat European food and live in houses partly or wholly furnished in European style

Behind this facade exists every possible variation of inner life from Earnest enthusiasm for Western ideals to inveterate reaction these varied attitudes toward westernism are not parked off by groups or localities they seeo exist among the individuals of every class and every land in the East the entire Orient is in fact on

Undergoing a prodigious transformation far more sudden and intense than anything the West has ever known our civilization is mainly self- evolved a natural growth developing by normal logical and relatively gradual stages the east on the contrary is undergoing a concentrated process of adaptation which with us was spread over centuries and

The result is not so much Evolution as Revolution political economic social idealistic religious and much more besides the upshot is confusion uncertainty grotesque anachronism and glaring contradiction single Generations are sundered by unbridgeable mental and spiritual Gulfs fathers do not understand Sons Sons despise their fathers everywhere the old and the new

Struggle fiercely often within the brain or Spirit of the same individual the infinite complexity of this struggle as it appears in India is well summarized by Sir Valentine kyule when he speaks of the many currents and crosscurrents of the confused movement which is stirring the stagnant Waters of Indian life the

Steady impact of alien ideas on an ancient and obsolescent civilization the more or less imperfect assimilation of those ideas by the few The Dread and resentment of them by those whose traditional ascendancy they threaten the disintegration of old beliefs and then again their aggressive Revival the careless diffusion of an artificial

System of Education based none too firmly on mere intellectualism and bere of all moral or religious sanction the application of Western theories of administration and of jurisprudence to a social formation stratified on lines of singular rigidity the play of modern economic forces upon primitive conditions of industry and trade the

Constant and unconscious but inevitable friction between subject races and their alien rulers the reverberation of distant Wars and distant racial conflicts the exaltation of an oriental people in the Far East 76 these lines though written about India apply with fair exactitude to every other portion

Of the near and Middle East today as a French writer remarks with special reference to the Levant the truth is that the Orient is in transformation and the muhammadan mentality as well though not perhaps exactly as we might wish it is undergoing a period of Crisis wherein the past struggles everywhere against

The present where ancient Customs impaired by modern Innovations present a hybrid and disconcerting spectacle 77 to this is largely due the unlovely traits displayed by most of the so-called westernized orientals the stucco civilization 78 of the Indian Babu and the boulevardier culture of the Turkish affendi civilized rather than civilized any profound transformation

Must engender many worthless byproducts and the Contemporary westernization of the Orient has its dark as well as its bright side the very process of Reform however necessary and inevitable lends fresh virence to Old ills and imports New evils previously unknown as Lord Cromer says it is doubtful whether the

Price which is being paid for introducing European civilization into these backward Eastern societies is always recognized as fully as it should be the material benefits derived from European civilization are unquestionably great but as regards the ultimate effect on public and private morality the future is altogether uncertain

79 the good and the evil of westernization are alike mostly clearly evident among the ranks of the educated Elites some of these men show the happiest effects of the western Spirit but an even larger number fall into the Gulf between old and new and they miserably perish Lord Cromer

Characterized many of the europeanized Egyptians as at the same time Dem mimiz Muslims and invertebrate Europeans 80 while another British writer thus pessimistically describes the superficial europeanism prevalent in India beautiful Mogul palaces furnished with cracked furniture from Tottenham Court Road that is what we have done to

The Indian mind we have not only made it despise its own culture and throw it out we have asked it to fill up the vacant spaces with Furniture which will not stand the climate the mental eurasianism of India is appalling such minds are no ad they belong to no civilization no

Country and no history they create a craving that cannot be satisfied and ideals that are unreal they falsify life they deprive men of the nourishment of their cultural past and the substitutes they Supply are unsubstantial we sought to give the Eastern mind a western content and environment we have succeeded too well

In establishing intellectual and moral Anarchy in both 81 these patent evils of westernization are a prime cause of that implacable hatred of everything Western which animates so many orientals including some well acquainted with the West such persons are precious auxiliaries to the ignorant reactionaries and to the rebels against Western political

Domination the political predominance of the West over the East is indeed the outstanding factor in the whole question of Western influence upon the Orient we have already surveyed Europe’s cont quest of the near and Middle East during the past Century and we have seen how helpless the backward decrepit Muslim

World was in face of the two-fold tide of political and economic subjugation in fact the economic phase was perhaps the more important factor in the rapidity and completeness of Europe’s success to be sure some Eastern lands were subjugated at a stroke by naked military force as in the French

Expedition to algers the Russian conquest of Central Asia and the Italian descent upon Tripoli much oftener however subjection began by the essentially economic process known as Pacific penetration the acquirement of a financial grip upon a hitherto independent Oriental country by Western capital in the form of loans and concessions until the Assumption of

Western political control became little more than a formal registration of what already existed in fact such is the story of the subjection of Egypt Morocco and Persia while England’s Indian empire started in a purely trading Venture the East India Company the tremendous potency of Pacific penetration is often not fully

Appreciated take the significance of one item alone Railway concessions says that Keen student of wealth politic Dr Dylan Railways are the iron tentacles of latterday expanding Powers they are stretched out caressingly at first but once the iron has so to say entered the soul of the weaker Nation the tentacles swell to the

Dimensions of bronny arms and the Embrace Titans to a crushing group 82 on the question of the abstract rightness or wrongness of the subjection of the east by the West I do not propose to enter it has been exhaustively discussed pro and con and every reader of these

Pages is undoubtedly familiar with the stock arguments on both sides the one thing certain is that this process of subjugation was broadly speaking inevitable given two worlds at such different levels as East and West at the beginning of the 19th century the West overflowing with vitality and striding

At the Forefront of human progress the East sunk in lethargy and decrepitude and it was a foregone conclusion that the former would encroach upon the latter what does concern us in our present discussion is the effect of European political control upon the general process of westernization in

Eastern lands and there can be no doubt that such westernization was thereby greatly furthered once in control of an oriental country the European rulers were bound to favor its westernization for a variety of reasons mere self-interest impelled them to make the country peaceful and prosperous in order to extract profit for themselves and

Reconcile the inhabitants to their rule this meant the replacement of inefficient and sanguinary Native despotisms inhibiting progress and engendering Anarchy by stable colonial governments maintaining order encouraging industry and introducing improvements like the railway the post sanitation and much more besides in addition to these material Innovations practically all the Western governments

Endeavored to better the social intellectual and spiritual condition of the peoples that had come under their control the European powers who built up colonial empires during the 19th century were actuated by a spirit far more enlightened than that of former times when the early colon empires of Spain

Portugal Holland and the English East India Company had been run on the brutal and short-sighted doctrine of sheer exploitation in the 19th century all Western rule in the orient was more or less impregnated with the ideal of The White Man’s Burden the great Empire Builders of the 19th century actuated as

They were not merely by self-interest and patriotic ambition but also by a profound sense of obligation to improve the populations which they had brought under their Count’s way felt themselves bearers of Western Enlightenment and labored to diffuse all the benefits of Western Civilization they honestly believed that the extension of Western political

Control was the best and quickest perhaps the only means of modernizing the backward portions of the world that standpoint is aily presented by a British liberal imperialist Professor Ramsey mu who writes it is an undeniable fact that the imperialism of the European peoples has been the means whereby European civilization has been

In some degree extended to the whole world so that today the whole world has become a single economic unit and all its members are parts of a single political system and this achievement brings us inside of the creation of a world order such as the wildest dreamers of the past could never have

Anticipated without the imperialism of the European peoples North and South America Australia South Africa must have remained wildernesses peopled by scattered bands of savages without it India and other lands of ancient civilization must have remained for all we can see externally subject to that endless succession of wars and arbitrary

Despotisms which have formed the substance of their history through Untold centuries and under which neither rational and equal law nor political Liberty as we conceive them were practicable conceptions without it the backward peoples of the earth must have continued to stagnate under the dominance of an unchanging primitive custom Ary regime

Which has been their state throughout recorded time if today the most fruitful political ideas of the West the ideas of nationality and self-government which are purely products of Western Civilization are beginning to produce a healthy fermentation in many parts of the non-european world that result is due to European imperialism

83 the ethics of modern imperialism have nowhere been better formulated than in an essay by Lord chromer an imperial policy he writes must of course be carried out with reasonable prudence and the principles of government which guide our relations with whatsoever races are brought under our control must be

Politically and economically sound and morally defensible this is in fact the Keystone of the Imperial Arch the main justification of imperialism is to be found in the use which is made of Imperial power if we make good use of our power we may face the future with

Without fear that we shall be overtaken by the Nemesis which attended Roman misrule if the reverse is the case the British Empire will deserve to fall and of assurity it will ultimately fall 84 such are the basic sanctions of Western imperialism has evolved during the 19th century whether or not it is

Destined to endure there can be no question that this prodigious extension of European political control greatly favored the spread of Western influences of every country mind it is of course arguable that the East would have voluntarily adopted Western methods and ideas even if no sort of Western

Pressure had been applied but they would have been adopted much more slowly and this vital element of time renders such arguments mere academic speculation for the vital expanding 19th century West to have deliberately restrained itself while the backward East blundering experimented with westernism accepting and rejecting buying goods and refusing to pay for

Them negotiating loans and then squandering and repudiating them inviting in Europeans and then expelling or massacring them would have been against all history and human nature as a matter of fact Western pressure was applied as it was bound to be applied and this constant ubiquitous unrelenting pressure broke down the barriers of

Oriental conservatism and inertia as nothing else could have done forced the East out of its old ruts and compelled it to take stock of things as they are in a world of hard facts instead of reminiscent dreams in subsequent chapters we shall examine the manifold results of this process which has so

Profoundly transformed the Orient during the past 100 years here we will continue our General survey by examining the more recent aspects of Western control over the East and the reactions of the east theto in my opinion the chief fallacy involved in criticisms of Western control over Eastern lands arises from

Failure to discriminate between 19th century and 20th Century imperialism 19th century imperialism was certainly inevitable and was apparently beneficial in the main 20th century imperialism cannot be so favorably judged by the year 1900 the Oriental peoples were no longer mere fanatical obscurantists neither knowing nor caring to know anything outside the closed

Circle of their aifi decadent civilizations the East had been going to school and wanted to begin to apply what it had been taught by the West it should have been obvious that these peoples whose past history proved them capable of achievement and who were now showing an apparently genuine desire for new

Progress needed to be treated differently from what they had been in other words a more liberal attitude on the part of the West had become advisable but no such change was made on the contrary in the west itself the liberal idealism which had prevailed during most of the 19th century was

Giving way to that Spirit of fierce political and economic rivalry which culminated in the Great War 85 never had Europe been so AVID for colonies for spheres of influence for concessions and preferential markets in fine so imperialistic in the unfavorable sense of the term the result was that with the

Beginning of the 20th century Western pressure on the East instead of being relaxed was redoubled and The Awakening Orient far from being met with sympathetic consideration was treated more ruthlessly than it had been for 200 years the way in which Eastern countries like turkey and Persia striving to reform themselves and protect their

Independence were treated by Europe’s new real politique would have scandalized the liberal imperialists of a generation before it certainly scandalized present day liberals as witness these scathing lines written in 1912 by the well-known British publicist Sydney low the conduct of the most christian powers during the past few

Years has borne a striking resemblance to that of robber bands descending upon an unarmed and helpless population of peasants so far from respecting the rights of other nations they have exhibited the most complete and cynical disregard for them they have in fact asserted the claim of the strong to Prey

Upon the weak and the utter impotence of all ethical considerations in the face of Armed Force with a crew nakedness which few Eastern military conquerors could well have surpassed the great Cosmic event in the history of the last quarter of a century has been the Awakening of Asia after centuries of

Suance the East has suddenly sprung to life and endeavored to throw itself vigorously into the full current of Western progress Japan started the Enterprise and fortunately for herself she entered upon it before the new Western policy had fully developed itself and while certain archaic ideals about the rights of peoples and the

Sanctity of treaties still prevailed when the new era was inaugurated by the great Japanese Statesmen of the 19th century Europe did not feel called upon to interfere we regarded the Japanese Renaissance with interest and admiration and left the people of nipon to work out the difficulties of their own salvation

Unobstructed if that revolution had taken place 30 years later there would probably have been a different story to tell and New Japan in the throws of her travail would have found the armed great Powers at her bedside each stretching forth a maled fist to grab something worth taking other Eastern countries

Which have endeavored to follow the example of Japan during the present Century have had worse luck during the past 10 years a wave of sheer materialism and absolute contempt for international morality has swept across the foreign offices of Europe and has reacted disastrously upon the various Eastern nations in their desperate

Struggles to reform a constitutional system they have been attempting to carry out the suggestions made to them for Generations by benevolent advisers in Christendom now when they take these councils to heart and Endeavor with halting steps and in the face of immense obstacles to pursue the path of Reform

One might suppose that their efforts would be regarded with sympathetic attention by the governments of the West and that even if these offered no direct Aid they would would at least allow a fair trial but on the contrary one great power after another has used the opportunity presented by the internal

Difficulties of the Eastern countries to set out upon a career of annexation 86 we have already seen how rapid was this career of annexation extinguishing the independence of the last remaining muhammadan States at the close of the Great War we have also seen how it exacerbated Muslim fear and hatred of

The West and the West was already feared and hated for many reasons in the preceding chapter we trace the growth of the pan-islamic movement and in subsequent chapters we shall trace the development of Oriental nationalism these Politico religious movements however by no means exhaust the list of Oriental reactions to

Westernism there are others economic social racial in character in view of the complex nature of the orient’s reaction against westernism let us briefly analyze the problem in its various constituent elements anti-western feeling has been waning in some quarters and waxing in others during the past 100 Years by temperamental reactionaries and Fanatics

Things Western have of course always been abort but leaving aside this intransigent minority the attitude of other categories of orientals has varied greatly according to times and circumstances by liberal-minded person person ‘s Western influences were at first hailed with cordiality and even with enthusiasm in the opening chapter we saw

How the liberal reformers welcomed the Western concept of progress and made it one of the bases of their projected religious reformation and the Liberals displayed the same attitude in secular matters the liberal Statesmen who governed turkey during the third quarter of the 19th century made Earnest efforts to reform

The ottoman State and it was the same in other parts of the Muslim world an interesting example is the attempt made by General kir edin to modernize Tunis this man a circassian by birth had won the confidence of his master the Bay who made him viser in 1,860 he toured Europe and returned

Greatly impressed with its civilization convinced of Europe’s infinite superiority he desired passionately to transplant Western ideas and methods to Tunis this he believed quite feasible and the result would so he thought be tunes’s rapid regeneration kir edin was not in the least a hater of the West he merely

Recognized clearly the Muslim world’s Peril of Speedy subjection to the West if it did not set its house rapidly in order and he therefore desired in a perfectly legitimate feeling of patriotism to press his country along the road of progress that it might be able to stand alone and preserve its

Independence so greatly was the Bay impressed by by kir edin’s report that he gave him a free hand in his reforming ERS for a short time kir edin displayed great activity though he encountered stubborn opposition from reactionary officials his work was cut short by his untimely death and tunus still

Unmodernized fell 20 years later under the power of France kir edin however worked for posterity in order to Rouse his compatriots to the realities of their situation he published a remarkable book the shest means of knowing the state of Nations this book has profoundly influenced both liberals and nationalists throughout the near East

Especially in North Africa where it has become the Bible of Tunisian and Algerian nationalism in his book Kier edin shows his Co religionists the necessity of breaking with their attitude of blind admiration for the past and proud indifference to everything else and of studying what is going on in the outer

World Europe’s present Prosperity is due he asserts not to Natural advantages or to religion but to progress in the Arts and Sciences which facilitate the circulation of wealth and exploit the Treasures of the Earth by an enlightened protection constantly given to agriculture industry and commerce all natural consequences of justice and

Liberty two things which for Europeans have become second nature in past ages the Muslim world was great and Progressive because it was then liberal and open to progress it declined through bigotry and obscurantism but it can revive by Reviving The Spirit of its early days I have stressed the example of the

Tunisian kir edin rather than the better known Turkish instances because it illustrates the general receptivity of mid 19th century Muslim liberals to Western ideas and their freedom from anti-western feeling 87 As Time past however many of these Ur while liberals disillusioned with the West for various reasons notably European aggression

Became the bitterest enemies of the West hating the very Spirit of Western Civilization 88 this anti-western feeling has of course been greatly exacerbated since the beginning of the present Century as an influential muhammadan wrote just before the Great War the events of these last 10 years and the disasters which have stricken

The muhammadan world have awakened in its bzm a sentiment of mutual cordiality and devotion hitherto unknown and a unanimous hatred against all its oppressors has been the ferment which today stir the hearts of all Muslims 89 the bitter ranker seething in many Muslim Hearts shows in outbursts like

The following from the pen of a popular Turkish writer at the close of the Balan Wars we have been defeated we have been shown hostility by the outside world because we have become too deliberative too cultured too refined in our conceptions of right and wrong of humanity and civilization the example of the

Bulgarian Army has taught us that every Soldier facing the enemy must return to the days of barbarism must have a thirst of blood must be merciless in slaughtering children and women old and weak must disregard others property life and honor let us spread blood suffering wrong and mourning thus only may we

Become the favorites of the Civilized world like King ferdinand’s Army 90 the Great War itself was hailed by multitudes of Muslims as a well-merited Nemesis on Western arrogance and greed here is how a leading Turkish newspaper characterized the European powers they would not look at the evils in their own

Countries or elsewhere but interfered at the slightest incident in our borders every day they would not at some part of our rights and our sovereignty they would perform Vivas setion on our quivering flesh and cut off great pieces of it and we with a forcibly controlled Spirit of rebellion in our hearts and

With clinched but powerless fists silent and depressed would murmur as the fire burned within oh that they might fall out with one another oh that they might eat one another up and lo today they are eating each other up just as the Turk wished they would 91 such anti-western sentiments are not

Confined to journalists or politicians they are shared by all classes from princes to peasants each class has its special reasons for hating European political control the native princes even when maintained upon their Thrones and confirmed in their dignities and iments bitterly resent their state of vassalage and their loss of Limitless

Despotic power do you know I can hardly buy a pen or a sword for myself without asking the resident for permission remarked an Indian Raja bitterly his attitude was precisely that of kadif toek Pasha who in the early days of the British occupation of Egypt while watching a review of British troops said

To one of his ministers do you suppose I like this I tell you I never see an English Sentinel in my streets without longing to jump out of my carriage and strangle him with my own hands 92 the upper classes feel much the same as their sovereigns they regret their

Former Monopoly of privilege and office this is especially true of the western educated intelligencia who believe that they should hold all government posts and resent bitterly the reservation of high salary directive positions for Europeans of course many intelligent liberals realize so fully the educative effect of European control that they

Acques in a temporary loss of Independence in order to complete their modernization and ultimately be able to stand alone without fear of reaction or Anarchy however these Liberals are only a small minority hated by their upper class fellows As Time servers and renegades and sundered by an immense

Gulf from the ignorant masses at First Sight we might think that the masses would on the whole be favorably disposed toward European political control despite certain economic disadvantages that westernization has imposed the masses have unquestionably gained most by European rule formerly exploited ruthlessly by both princes and upper

Classes The Peasants and town workers are today assured peace order Justice and security for their landholdings and the fruits of their toil now it would be a mistake to think that the masses are insensible to all this the fact is they do recognize the benefits of European rule nevertheless the new rulers while

Tolerated and even respected are never beloved furthermore as the generation which knew the old regime dies off its Evils are forgotten and the younger generation taking present benefits for granted murmurs the flaws in the existing order and lends a reier ear to Native agitators extoling the glories of

Independence and idealizing the good old times the truth of the matter is that despite all its shortcomings the average Oriental hankers after the old way of life even when he recognizes the good points of the new he nevertheless yearns irrationally for the old a Muslim ruler

Though he oppress me and not a cfer 93 though he work me will is a Muslim proverb of long standing every Colonial Administration no matter how enlightened runs counter to this ineradicable aversion of Muslims for Christian rule a Russian administrator in Central Asia voices the sentiments of European officials generally when he

States Pious Muslims cannot accommodate themselves to the government of Jowers 94 furthermore it must be remembered that most orientals either do not recognize much benefit in European rule or even though they do recognize considerable benefits consider these more than offset by many points which in their eyes are maddening annoyances or

Burdens the very things which we most pride ourselves on having given to the Orient peace order Justice security are not valued by the Oriental anywhere near as highly as we might expect of course he likes these things but he would prefer to get less of them if what he

Did get was given by native rulers sharing his prejudices and point of view take the single factor of justice as an English writer remarks the Asiatic is not delighted with Justice per se indeed the Asiatic really cares but little about it if he can get sympathy in the

Sense in which he understands that misunderstood word this is the real reason why every Asiatic in his heart of hearts prefers the rule of his own nationality bad though it be to the most ideal rule of aliens for when he is ruled by his own countrymen he is dealt

With by people who understand his frailties and who though they may savagely punish him are at least in sympathy with the motives which prompt his delinquencies 95 take again the matter of order the average Oriental not only does not appreciate but detests our well-regulated systematic manner of Life

Accustomed as he has been for centuries to a slip shot easygoing existence in which if there was much Injustice there was also much favoritism he instinctively hates things like sanitary measures and police regulations accustomed to a wide personal Liberty in the anarchic sense he is not willing to limit this Liberty

For the common will he wants his own way even though it involves possible dangers to himself dangers which may always be averted by bribery favoritism or violence said an American who had listened to a filipino’s glowing words on Independence what could you do if you were independent that you cannot do now

I could build my house there in the middle of the street if I wanted to but suppose your neighbor objected and interfered I would get him but suppose he got you a shrug of the shoulders was the only answer 96 the fact is that the majority of orientals despite the considerable

Penetration of Western ideas and methods that has been going on for the last century still love their old ruts and hate to be budged out of them they realize that Western rule furthers more than anything else the westernization of their social system their traditional manner of life and they therefore tend

To react fanatically against it every Innovation imposed by the colonial authorities is apt to Rouse the most per blind resistance for example compulsory vaccination was bitterly opposed for years by the natives of Algeria the French officials pointed out that small pox hither to rampant was being rapidly

Extrap the natives replied that in their opinion it was merely a crafty scheme for sterilizing them sexually and thus make room for French colonists the officials thereupon pointed to the census figures which showed that the natives were increasing at an unprecedented rate the natives merely Shrugged their shoulders and

Continued to envey Against The Innovation this whole matter has been well summarized by a French writer with a wide knowledge of Muhammad and lands says Lewis Bertrand in reality all these peoples indisposed as they are by their Traditions customs and climates to live according to our social ideal hate to

Endure the constraint of our police of our Administration in a word of any sort of regulated government no matter how just and honest delivered from the most anarchic and vexatious of tyrannies they remain in spirit more or less like our vagabond always hoping to escape from the

Garms in vain do we point out to the Arabs of North Africa that thanks to the protection of France they are no longer pillaged by Turkish despots nor massacred and tortured by rival tribes they see only one thing the necessity of paying taxes for matters that they do

Not understand we shall never realize the rage the fury aroused in our Algerian towns by the simple Health Department ordinance requiring the empty of a garbage Ken at a fixed hour at Cairo and elsewhere I have observed the same rebellious feelings among the donkey boys and cab drivers subjected to

The regulations of the English policemen but it is not merely our Municipal and administrative regulations which they find insupportable it is all our habits taken and block in a word the order which regulates our civilized life for instance on the railway line from Jaffa to Jerusalem the train stops at a

Station beside which stand the tomb of a holy man the schedule calls for a stop of a minute at most but no sooner had we arrived than what was my stupefaction to see all the muhammadans on the train get off spread their prayer rugs and tranquilly begin their

Devotions the station Master blew his whistle the conductor yelled at them that he was going to leave them behind nobody budged a squad of Railway employees had to be mobilized who with blows and curses finally bundled these Pious persons back into the train again the business lasted a good quarter of an

Hour and was not easy the more vigorous of the worshippers put up an energetic resistance the above is only a casual instance chosen at random what is certain is that these peoples do not yet understand what we mean by exactitude and that the concept of a well-regulated existence has not yet penetrated their

Heads 97 what has just been written of course applies primarily to the ignorant masses but this attitude of mind is more or less common to all classes of Oriental peoples the habits of centuries are not easily transformed in fact it must not be forgotten that the upper classes were

Able to enjoy most fully the capricious personal Liberty of the unmodified East and that therefore though they may be better able to understand the value of westernization they have in one sense the most to lose 98 in fact for all orientals high and low alike the good old times had charms

Which they mournfully regret for the prince the Pasa the cordier existence was truly an oriental Paradise to be sure the prince might at any moment be defeated and slain by a rival Monarch the pascia strangled at his master’s order the cordier tortured through a superior’s whim but meanwhile it was

Life rich and full each of these men had his own character and his own Renown among his countrymen and each enjoyed a position such as is now unattainable in Europe in which he was released from laws could indulge his own fancies bad or good and was fed every day and all

Day with the special flattery of Asia that willing submissiveness to Mere volition which is so like adoration and which is to its recipients the most intoxicating of delights each to had his court of followers and every courtier shared in the power the luxury and the agulation accruing to his Lord the power

Was that of life and death the luxury included possession of every woman he desired the agulation was as I have said almost religious worship 99 but it may be asked what about the poor man exploited by this hierarchy of capricious despots what had he to gain from all this well in most cases

He got nothing at all but he might gain a great deal life in the old Orient was a gigantic Lottery anyone however humble who Chan to please a great man might rise to Fame and Fortune at a bound and this is just what pleases the Eastern temperament for in the East luck and

Caprice are more prized than the security cherished in the West in the orient the favorite stories are those narrating sudden and amazing shifts of Fortune Beggars become VIs or viers become Beggars and all in a single night to the majority of orientals it is still the uncertainties of life and the

Capricious favor of the powerful which make it most worth living not the sure reward of honesty and well-regulated labor all these things made the life of the Orient infinitely interesting to all and it is precisely this gambler’s interest which westernization has more or less destroyed as an English writer

Very justly remarks AO of modern Egypt our rule may be perfect but the East finds it dull the old order was a ragged garment but it was gay it’s very vicissitude had a charm ah yes said an Egyptian to a champion of English rule but in the old days a beggar might sit

At the gate and if he were found pleasing in the eyes of a great lady he might be a great man on the morrow there is a natural and inevitable regret for the gorgeous and perilous past when favored took the place of justice and life had great Heights and depths for

The Egypt of Joseph haran al- Rashid and ismel Pasha we have spread the coat of broad cloth over the radiant garment 100 saddened and irritated by the threatened loss of so much that they hold dear it is not strange that many Eastern conservatives glorify the past as a sort of golden age infinitely

Superior to anything the West can produce and in this they are joined by many Quantum liberals disillusioned with westernism and flying into the arms of reaction the result is a spirit of hatred against everything Western which sometimes assumes the most extravagant forms says Lewis Bertrand during a

Lecture that I attended at Cairo the speaker contended that France owed Islam one its civilization and Sciences two half of its vocabulary three all that was best in the character and mentality of its population seeing that from the Middle Ages to the revolution of 1,789 all the reformers who labored for

Its enfranchisement albigensians vodis Calvinists and camisards were probably descendants of the sarasin it was nothing less than the total annexation of France to Morocco meanwhile it has become the fashion for fervent Egyptian nationalists to go to Spain and meditate in The Gardens of the alkazer of sevil or in the paos of the

Alhamra of Granada on the defunct lenders of Western Islam 101 even more grotesque are the rap cidies of the Hindu wing of this Golden Age School these Hindu enthusiasts far outdo the wildest flights of their Muslim fellows they solemnly assert that Hindustan is the nursery and home of all True Religion philosophy culture

Civilization science invention and everything else and they Aver that when India’s present regrettable eclipse is passed an eclipse of course caused entire by English rule She is again to shine forth in her glory for the Salvation of the whole world employing to the full the old addage that there is

Nothing new Under the Sun they have discovered in the vas and other Hindu sacred texts irrefutable evidence that the ancient Hindu sages anticipated all our modern ideas including such upto-date matters as bomb-dropping airplanes and the League of Nations 102 all this raps citical laudation of the past will in the long run prove

Feudal the East like the West has its peculiar virtues but the East also has its special faults and it is the faults which for the last thousand years have been gaining on the virtues resulting in backwardness stagnation and inferiority today the East is being penetrated and quickened by the West the

Outcome will never be complete westernization in the sense of a mere wholesale copying and absolute transformation the East will always remain fundament mentally itself but it will be a new self the result of a true assimilation of Western ideas the reactionaries can only delay this process and thereby prolong the orient’s

Inferiority and weakness nevertheless the reactionary attitude though unintelligent is intelligible westernization hurts too many cherished prejudices and vested interests not to arouse chronic resistance this resistance would occur even if Western influences were all good and westerners all angels of light but of course westernization has its Dark Side while our Western culture bearers

Are animated not merely by altruism but also by far less worthy motives this strengthens the hand of the Oriental reactionaries and lends them the cover of moral sanctions in addition to the extremely painful nature of any transformative process especially in economic and social matters there are many incidental

Factors of an extremely ating nature to begin with the mere presence of the European with his patent superiority of power and progress is a constant annoyance and humiliation this physical presence of the European is probably as necessary to the orient’s Regeneration as it is inevitable in view of the Orient present

Inferiority but however beneficial it is nonetheless a source of profound irritation these Europeans disturb everything modify customs raise living standards erect separate quarters in the cities where they form extr territorial colonies exempt from native law and customary regulation an English town rises in the heart of Cairo a little Paris eats into

Arabesque algar while European per flaunts itself opposite Turkish stambul as for India it is dotted with British enclaves the great presidency towns Kolkata Bombay Madras are European cities planted on Indian soil all the prominent buildings are European though in some of the more recent ones an

Endeavor has been made to adopt what is known as the Indo serenic style of architecture for the rest the streets are called by English names generally the names of bygone vicroy and governors or of the soldiers who conquered the land and quelled the Mutiny Heroes whose Effigies meet you at every turn the

Shops are English shops where English or Eurasian assistant traffic in English Goods English carriages and Motors Bowl along the macadamized or roads of old England on every hand there is evidence of the instinctive effort to reproduce as nearly as the climate will permit English conditions of Life almost

The whole life of the people of India is relegated to the back streets not to say the slums frankly called in Madras the black town there are a few points clubs and Jim con especially established to that end where Englishmen and even women meet Indian men and even women of the

Wealthier classes on a basis of social equality but few indeed are the points of contact between the Asian town and the European city which has been superimposed upon it the missionary the Salvation Army Outpost perhaps the Curiosity hunting tourist may go forth into the bazaars but the European

Community as a whole cares no more for the swarming Brown multitudes around it than the Dwellers on an island car for the fishes in the circumambient sea 103 and what is true of the great towns holds good for scores of provincial centers stations and cantonments the scale may be smaller but

The type is the same the European in the orient is thus everywhere profoundly an alien living apart from the Native life and the European is not merely an aloof alien he is a ruling alien as well always his attitude is that of the superior the master

This attitude is not due to brutality or snoby it is inherent in the very essence of the situation of course many Europeans have Bad Manners but that does not change the basic reality of the case and this reality is that whatever the future may bring the European first established himself in the orient

Because the West Was Then infinitely ahead of the East and he is still there today because despite all recent changes the East is still behind the West therefore the European in the orient is still the ruler and so long as he stays there must continue to rule justly temperately with politic regard for

Eastern progress and liberal Devolution of power as the East becomes ripe for its liberal exercise but nevertheless rule wherever The Accidental has established his political control there are but two Alternatives govern or go furthermore in his governing The Accidental must rule according to to his own lights despite all concessions to

Local feeling he must in the last analysis act as a western not as an Eastern ruler Lord chromer voices the heart of all true colonial government when he says in governing Oriental races the first thought must be what is good for them but not necessarily what they think is good for them

104 now all this is inevitable and should be self-evident nevertheless the fact remains that even the most enlightened Oriental can hardly regard it as other than a bitter though salutary medicine While most orientals feel it to be humiliating or intolerable the very virtues of the European are prime causes of his

Unpopularity for as Meredith towns andwell says the European is in Asia the man who will insist on his neighbor doing business just after dinner and being exact when he is half asleep and being prompt just when he wants to enjoy and he rules in Asia and is loved in Asia accordingly

105 furthermore the European in the orient is disliked not merely as a ruler and a disturber but also as a man of widely different race this matter of race is very complicated 106 but it cuts deep and is of fundamental importance most of the peoples of the near and

Middle East with which our present discussion is concerned belong to what is known as the brown category of the human species of course in strict anthropology the term is inexact anthropologically we cannot set off a sharply differentiated group of brown types as a brown race as we can

Set off the white types of Europe as a white race or the yellow types of the far east as a yellow race this is because the near and Middle East have been racially a vast Melting Pot or series of melting pots wherein conquest and migration have continually poured new heterogeneous elements

Producing the most diverse ethnic amalgamations thus today some of the near and Middle Eastern peoples are largely white like the Persians and ottoman Turks others like the southern Indians and yemenite Arabs are largely black while still others like the Himalayan and Central Asian peoples have much yellow blood again as there is no

Brown racial type Norm as there are white and yellow type Norms so there is no generalized Brown culture like those possessed by yellows and whites the great Brown spiritual bond is Islam yet in India the chief seat of brown population Islam is professed by only 1/5 of the inhabitants lastly while the spiritual

Frontiers of the Muslim World coincide mainly with the ethnic frontiers of the brown World Islam overlaps at several points including some pure whites in Eastern Europe many true yellows in the Far East and multitudes of negroes in Africa afca nevertheless despite these partial modifications the terms Brown

Race and brown world do canot genuine realities which science and politics alike recognize to be essentially true there certainly is a fundamental comedy between the Brown pees this comedy is subtle and intangible in character yet it exists and under certain circumstances it is capable of momentous manifestations its Salient feature is

The instinctive recognition by all near and Middle Eastern peoples that they are fellow asiatics however bitter may be their internes and feuds this instinctive Asiatic feeling has been noted by historians for more than 2,000 years and it is true today as in the past the great racial divisions of

Mankind are the most fundamental the most permanent the most ineradicable things in Human Experience they are not mere diverse colorations of skin matters like complexion stature and hair formation are merely the outward visible symbols of correlative mental and spiritual differences which reveal themselves in sharply contrasted temperaments and viewpoints and which translate

Themselves into the infinite phenomena of Divergent group life now it is one of these basic racial lines of cleavage which runs between East and West broadly speaking the near and Middle East is the brown world and this differentiates it from the white world of the West in a

Way which never can be really obliterated in indeed to attempt to obliterate the difference by racial Fusion would be the maddest of folies east and west can mutually Quicken each other by a mutual exchange of ideas and ideals they can only harm each other by transfusions of blood to unite

Physically would be the greatest of disasters East and West have both given much to the world in the past and promise to give more in the future but whatever of True Value they are to give can be given only on condition that they remain ENT themselves ethnic Fusion would destroy

Both their race souls and would result in a dreary mongrelization from which would issue nothing but degeneration and Decay both East and West instinctively recognize the truth of this and show it by their common contempt for the erasion the mongrel offspring of unions between the two races as Meredith towns andwell

Says the chasm between the brown man and the white is unfathomable has existed in all ages and exists still everywhere no white man marries a brown wife no brown man marries a white wife without an inner sense of having been false to some unintelligible but irresistible command

107 the above summary of the political economic social and racial differences between East and West gives us a fair idea of the numerous crosscurrents which complicate the relations of the Two Worlds and which hinder westernization the westernizing process is assuredly going on and in subsequent chapters we shall see how far-reaching

Is its scope but the factors just considered will indicate the possibilities of reaction and will roughly assign the limits to which westernization May ultimately extend one thing is certain Western political control in the orient however prolonged and however imposing in appearance must Ever Rest on essentially fragile foundations the Western rulers will

Always remain an alien cast tolerated even respected perhaps but never loved and never regarded as anything but foreigners furthermore Western rule must necessarily become more precarious with the increasing Enlightenment of the subject peoples so that the acquiescence of one generation may be followed by the Hostile protest of the next it is indeed

An unstable equilibrium hard to maintain and easily upset the latent instability of European political control over the near and Middle East was dramatically shown by the moral effect of the Russo Japanese war down to that time the Orient had been so helpless in face of European aggression that most orientals

Had come to regard Western Supremacy with fatalistic resignation but the defeat of a first class European power by an Asiatic people instantly broke the spell and all Asia and Africa thrilled with a wild intoxication which we can scarcely conceive a scotch missionary thus describes the effect of the Japanese

Victories on Northern India where he was stationed at the time a stir of excitement passed over the north of India even the remote villagers talked over the victories of Japan as they sat in their circles and passed round the Hua at night one of the older men said

To me there has been nothing like it since the Mutiny a Turkish Consul of long experience in Western Asia told me that in the interior you could see everywhere the most ignorant peasants tingling with the news Asia was moved from end to end and the sleep of the centuries was finally broken

It was a time when it was good to be alive for a new chapter was being written in the book of the world’s history8 of course the Russo Japanese war did not create this new spirit whose Roots lay in the previous epic of subtle changes that had been going on the Russo

Japanese war was thus rather the occasion than the cause of the wave of exultant self-confidence which swept over Asia and Africa in the year 1904 but it did dramatize and clarify that had been germinating half unconsciously in millions of Oriental minds and was thus the sign Manual of

The whole Nexus of forces making for a revivified Orient furthermore this new temper profoundly influenced the orient’s attitude toward the series of fresh European aggressions which then began it is a curious fact that just when the Far East had successfully resisted European encroachment the near and Middle East should have been

Subjected to European aggressions of unparalleled severity we have already noted the Furious protests and The Unwanted moral solidarity of the Muslim world at these manifestations of Western real politique it would be interesting to know exactly how much of this defiant temper was due to the hardening example of Japan certainly our Ultra

Imperialists of the West were playing a dangerous game during the decade between 1904 and 1914 as armenius vur remarked after the Italian raid on Tripoli the more the power and authority of the West gains ground in the old world the stronger becomes the bond of unity and mutual interest between the separate factions

Of asiatics and the deeper burns the fanatical hatred of Europe is it wise or expedient by useless provocation and unnecessary attacks to increase the feeling of animosity to hurry on the struggle between the two worlds and to nip in the bud the work of modern culture which is now going on in Asia

109 the Great War of course immensely AGG ated and already critical situation the Orient suddenly saw the European peoples who in racial matters had hitherto maintained something like solidarity locked in an internes and death grapple of unparalleled ferocity it saw those same peoples put one another furiously to the ban as

Irreconcilable foes it saw white race Unity cleft by moral and political Gulfs which white men themselves continuously iterated would never be filled the one redeeming feature of the struggle in Oriental eyes was the liberal program which the Allied Statesmen inscribed upon their banners but when the war was

Over and the Allies had won it promptly leaked out that at the very time when the Allied leaders were making their liberal speeches they had been negotiating a series of secret treaties partitioning the near East between them in a spirit of the most cynical imperialism and in the peace conferences

That closed the war it was these secret treaties not the liberal speeches which determined the Oriental settlement resulting on paper at least in the total subjugation of the near and Middle East to European political control the wave of Wrath which thereupon rolled over the East was not confined to Furious

Remonstrance like the protests of pre-war days there was a note of immediate resistance and Rebellion not audible before this rebellious temper has translated itself into warlike action which has already forced the European powers to Abate some of their extreme pretentions and which will dedly make them Abate others in the near

Future the details of this post-war unrest will be discussed in later chapters suffice it to say here that the Great War has shattered European prestige in the East and has opened the eyes of orientals to the weaknesses of the West to the Orient the war was a gigantic course of education for one

Thing millions of orientals and Negroes were taken from the remotest jungles of Asia and Africa to serve as soldiers and laborers in the white man’s War though the bulk of these auxiliaries were used in colonial operations more than a million of them were brought to Europe itself here they killed white men raped

White women tasted white luxuries learned white weaknesses and went home to tell their people the whole story 110 Asia and Africa today know Europe as they never knew it before and we may be sure that they will make use of their knowledge the most serious factor in the

Situation is that the Orient realizes that the famous Versa peace which reports to have pacified Europe is no peace but rather an unconstructive unstats manlike futility that left old sores unhealed and even dealt fresh wounds Europe today lies debilitated and uncured while Asia and Africa see in this a standing incitement to rash

Dreams and violent action such is the situation today and East torn by the conflict between new and old facing a West Riven with dissension and sick from its mad Foles probably never before have the relations between the two worlds contain so many incalculable even cataclysmic possibilities the point to be here noted

Is that this strange new East which now faces us is mainly the result of Western influences permeating it in unprecedented fashion for the past 100 years to the chief elements in that permeation let us now turn footnotes 72 for the larger aspects see my book The Rising tide of color against

White World supremacist New York and London 1920 73 on these points C armenius vur Western culture in eastern lands London 1906 also his La turkey D etant Kant Paris 1,898 CS Cooper the modernizing of the Orient New York 1914 Esa Bookshare essays Indian and Islamic London 1912 AJ

Brown economic changes in Asia the century March 1904 74 for the effect of the West intellectually and spiritually C amury opci sir Valentine kyol Indian unrest London 1910 JN farquar modern religious movements in India New York 1915 Reverend J Morrison new ideas in India a study of social political and religious

Developments Edinburgh 1906 the Earl of chromer modern Egypt especially Volume 2 Pages 228 to 243 London 1908 75 for the westernized elites CL Bertrand l e Miraj orinal Paris 1910 chromer opci am me L and D AUD sociali Paris 1918 a e chatelier politique mman review Dand musulman September

1910 76 Kyo opci PP 321 to 322 77 Bertrand opci P39 see also Bookshare opci T farar opci Morrison opci R mooker the foundations of Indian economics London 1916 DH dodwell economic transition in India Economic Journal December 1910 78 WS Lily India and its problems p243 London

1902 79 chromer P CIT Volume 2 p231 0 ibid p228 81 J Ramsey McDonald the government of India Pages 171 to 172 London 1920 on the evils of westernization see further Bookshare chromer dodwell mooker already cited sir WM Ramsey the Turkish peasantry of Anatolia quarterly review January 1918 hm Hindman The Awakening of

Asia New York 1919 T Rothstein Egypt’s ruin London 1910 Captain pen rasher sh UNS solution to law question indene and algerie Paris 1903 82 EJ Dylan Persia contemporary review June 1910 83 Ramsey mu Europe and the non-european world the new Europe June 28th 1917 84 the Earl of chromer political

And literary essays P5 London 1913 85 for a full discussion of these changes in Western ideas see my Rising tide of color against white World Supremacy especially chaps 6 and seven 86 Sydney low the most christian powers fortnightly review March 1912 87 on this point C also a amury

Western culture in eastern lands London 1906 WS blunt the future of Islam London 1,882 also the two articles by Leon Kon on intellectual and social developments in the Islamic World during the 19th century in lavis r ID histoire General Volume 11 chapter 15 volume 12 chapter 14 88 CA VY the Islam I’m

N chapter 6 leig 10875 89X law situation politique deop Pur review Dand mman June 1914 as already stated the editor vouches this Anonymous writer as a distinguished muhammadan official Anu solman 90 ahed emmen the development of modern turkey as measured by its press p18 Columbia University PHD thesis New York

1914 91 the Constantinople tannin quoted from the Literary Digest October 24th 1914 P 784 this attitude toward the Great War and the European powers was not confined to muhammadan peoples it was common to non-white peoples everywhere for a survey of this feeling throughout the world see my Rising tide of color

Against white World Supremacy Pages 13 to6 92 both the above instances are taken from CS Cooper the modernizing of the Orient Pages 339 to 340 New York 1914 93 an unbeliever in other words a Christian 94 quoted by AO iov Le turkistan Russ Paris 1914 95b putam will the conflict of color

P93 London 1910 96 quoted from HH Powers the great peace p82 New York 1918 97 L Bertrand l e Mirage Oriental Pages 441 to 442 Paris 1910 98 on this point see the very interesting essay by Meredith town and entitled the charm of Asia for asiatics

In his book Asia and Europe Pages 120 to 128 99 town and opci it p14 100h spender England Egypt and turkey contemporary review October 1906 101 berand Pages 209 210 102 for discussion of this Hindu attitude CW Archer India and the future London 1918 young and fers India in Conflict London

1920 also see Hindu writings of this nature H Matra Hinduism the world ideal London 1916 aumar Swami the dance of civa New York 1918 M and chury the world and the next War Journal of race development April 196 103 Archer Pages 11 12 104 chromer political and literary essays

P25 105 TOs and Asia and Europe P 128 106 I have dealt with it at length in my Rising tide of color against white World Supremacy 107 Town p97 108 Reverend CF Andrews the Renaissance in India P4 London 1911 for other similar accounts of the effect of the Russo Japanese war upon

Oriental peoples generally C low Egyptian unrest The Forum October 1906 F far janal l e j Pon ETL Islam review Dand musulman November 1906 Oriental ideals as affected by the Russo Japanese war American review of reviews February 1905 a amury Japan and the muhammadan world 19th century and

After April 1905 yayas cic op CIT p42 109 a vur an approach between Muslims and Buddhists 19th century and after April 1912 110 for the effect of the war on Asia and Africa CA deenan llin deur rope Paris 1920 hm Hindman The Awakening of Asia New York 1919 Ed morale the black

Man’s Burden New York 1920 FB Fisher India silent Revolution New York 1919 also my Rising tide of color against white World Supremacy chapter 4 political change the orient’s chief handicap has been its vicious political tradition from earliest times the typical form of government in the East has been

Despotism the arbitrary rule of an absolute monarch whose subject are slaves holding their goods their honors their very lives at his will and pleasure the sole consistent check upon Oriental despotism has been religion some critics may add custom but it amounts to the same thing for in the

East custom always acquires a religious sanction the mantle of religion of course covers its ministers the priests forming a privileged cast but with these exceptions Oriental despotism has usually known no bounds and the desperate so long as he respected religion and the priesthood has been

Able to act pretty much as he chose in the very dawn of History we see Pharaoh exhausting all Egypt to gratify his whim for a colossal pyramid tomb and throughout history Oriental life has been cursed by this fatal political Simplicity now manifold Human Experience has conclusively proved that despotism

Is a bad form of government in the long run of course there is the legendary benevolent desperate the father of his people surrounded by wise counselors and abolishing evils by a nod or a stroke of the pen that is all very well in a fairy tale but in real life the benevolent

Desperate rarely happens and still more rarely succeeds himself the father of his people usually has a pompous son and a vicious grandson who bring the people to ruin the melano Trinity David Solomon riam has reappeared with depressing regularity throughout his furthermore even the benevolent desperate has his limitations the trouble with all despots

Good or bad is that their rule is entirely personal everything in the last analysis depends on the despots personal will nothing is fixed or certain the benevolent desperate himself May discard his benevolence overnight and the fate of an Empire may be jeopardized by the Monarch’s infatuation for a woman or by

An upset in his digestion we accidentals have in fact never known despotism in its Simon pure Oriental sense not even under the Roman Empire indeed we can hardly conceive what it means when we speak of a benevolent despot we usually think of the enlightened autocrats of 18th century

Europe such as Frederick the great but these monarchs were not despat as orientals understand it take Frederick for example he was regarded as absolute but his subjects were not slaves those proud Prussian officers starched bureaucrats stiff necked burgers and stubborn peasants each had his sense of personal dignity and legal status The

Unquestioning Obedience which they gave Frederick was given not merely because he was their King but also because they knew that he was the hardest working man in Prussia and tireless in his Devotion to the state if Frederick had suddenly changed into a lazy depraved capricious Tyrant his obedient prussians would have

Soon showed him that there were limits to his power in the orient it is quite otherwise in the East there lies upon the eyes and foreheads of all men alw which is not found in the European decalogue and this low runs Thou shalt honor and worship the man whom God shall

Set above thee for thy King if he cherish thee Thou shalt love him and if he plunder and oppress thee Thou shalt still love him for thou art his slave and his chatt 111 the Eastern Monarch May amure himself in his herum casting the burdens of State upon the shoulders of a grand

Vizir this vizir has thenceforth Limitless power the life of every subject is in his hands yet any evening at the pout of a dancing girl the Monarch may send from his heram to the vizier’s Palace a negro mute armed with the bow string and when that black mute

Arrives the vizer doing his robe of off and with neither question nor remonstrance will bear his neck to be strangled that is real despotism the despotism that the East has known such is the political tradition of the Orient and it is surely obvious that under such a tradition neither ordered government

Nor consistent progress is possible Eastern history is in fact largely a record of sudden flowerings and equally sudden declines a strong able man cuts his way to power in a period of confusion and Decay he must be strong and able or he would not win over other

Men of similar nature struggling for the coveted prize his energy and ability soon work wonders he knows the Rough and Ready way of getting things done his Vigor and resolution Supply the driving power required to compel his subordinates to act with reasonable efficiency especially since incompetence or dishonesty are punished with the

Terrible severity of the Persian king who fled an unjust sat trap alive and made the skin into the seat of the official chair on which the new satrap SAT to administer Justice while the master lives things may go well but the master dies and is succeeded by his son

This son even assuming that he has inherited much of his father’s ability has had the worst possible upbringing raised in the Herm surrounded by obsequious slaves and Designing Women neither his pride nor his passions have been effectively restrained and he grows up a pompous Tyrant and probably precociously

Depraved such a man will not be apt to look after things as his father did and as soon as the Master’s eye shifts things begin to go to Pieces how can it be otherwise his father built up no governmental machine functioning almost automatically as in the west his

Officers worked from fear or personal loyalty not out of a patriotic sense of Duty or impersonal espre decor under the grandson matters get even worse power slips from his incompetent hands and is parceled out among many local despots of whom the strongest cuts his way to power assuming that the

Decadent state is not overrun by some foreign conqueror in either eventuality the old cycle David Solomon riobo is finished and a new cycle begins with the same destined end that in a nutshell is the political history of the East it has however been modified or temporarily interrupted by the impact of

More liberal political influences exerted sometimes from special Eastern regions and sometimes from the West not all the Orient has been given over to unrelieved despotism here and there have been peoples mostly mountain or pastoral peoples who abhor despotism such a people have always been the Arabs we have already seen how the

Arabs fired by Islam established a mighty caliphate which in its early days was a Theocratic democracy of course we have also seen how the older tradition of despotism reasserted itself over most of the Muslim world how the Democratic caliphate turned into a despotic sultanate and how the Liberty loving

Arabs retired sullenly to their deserts political liberalism like religious liberalism was crushed and almost forgotten almost not quite for memories of the mechan caliphate like memories of melismas after all free Arabia still stood with every Arab tribesman armed to the teeth to see that it kept free and

Then there was Islam No Court Theologian could entirely explain away the fact that Muhammad had said things like all believers are brothers and all Muslims are free no court chronicler could entirely expunged from Muslim annals the story of Islam’s early days known as the WC day or age of

Blessedness even in the darkest times Muslims of liberal Tendencies must have been greatly interested to read that the first caleff Abu bikr after his election by the people said oh Nation you have chosen me the most unworthy among you for your cff support me as long as my

Actions are just if otherwise admonish me Rouse me to a sense of my duty truth alone is desirable and lies are despicable as I am the guardian of the weak obey me only so long as I obey the sharat Divine Law but if you see that I

Deviate but in the minutest details from this law you need obey me no more 112 in fine no subsequent distortions could entirely obliterate the fact that primitive Islam was the Supreme expression of a freedom love folk whose religion must necessarily contain many liberal Tendencies even the sharat or canon law

Is as Professor liir States fundamentally Democratic and opposed in essence to absolutism 113 vur well summarizes this matter when he writes it is not Islam and its doctrines which have devastated the Western portion of Asia and brought about the present sad state of things but it is the tyranny of the Muslim

Princes who have willfully perverted Ed the doctrines of the prophet and sought and found maxims in the Quran as a basis for their despotic rule they have not allowed the faintest suspicion of doubt in matters of religion and efficaciously distorting and crushing all liberal principles they have prevented the dawn of a Muslim

Renaissance 114 in the opening chapter we saw how Oriental despotism reached its evil maximum in the 18th century and how the muhammadan Revival was not merely a pure and Reformation of religion but was also in part a political protest Against The Vicious and contemptible tyrants who misruled the Muslim world this internal

Movement of political liberalism was soon Crosscut by another political current coming in from the West comparing the miserable decrepitude of the Muslim East with Europe’s prosperity and vigor thinking Muslims were beginning to recognize their shortcomings and they could not avoid the conclusion that their woes were in large part due to their wretched

Governments indeed a few even of the Muslim princes came to realize that there must be some adoption of Western political methods if their countries were to be saved from destruction the most notable examples of this new type of Oriental Sovereign were Sultan mmud 2 of turkey and mahamed

Alley of Egypt both of whom came to power about the beginning of the 19th century of course none of these reforming princes had the slightest idea of granting their subjects constitutional Liberties or of transforming themselves into to limited monarchs they intended to remain absolute but absolute more in the sense

Of the enlightened autocrat of Europe and less in the sense of the purely Oriental desperate what they wanted were true organs of government Army Civil Service Judiciary Etc which would function efficiently and semi-automatically as governmental machinery and not as mere amorphous masses of individuals who had to be

Continuously prodded and punished by The Sovereign in order to get anything done mammu 2 mamed Ali and their princely colleagues persisted in their new policies but the outcome of these reforms from above was on the whole disappointing the monarchs might build barracks and bureaus on European models and fill them with soldiers and

Bureaucrats in European clothes but they did not get European results most of these Western type officials knew almost nothing about the west and were therefore incapable of doing things in Western fashion in in fact they had small heart for the business devoid of any sort of enthusiasm for ideas and institutions

Which they did not comprehend they applied themselves to the work of Reform with secret ill will and repugnance moved only by blind obedience to their sovereign’s command As Time passed the military branches did gain some Modern efficiency but the civil services made little progress adopting many Western

Bureaucratic vices but few or none of the virtues meanwhile reformers of quite a different sort began to appear men demanding Western Innovations like constitutions parliaments and other phenomena of modern political life their numbers were constantly recruited from the widening Circles of men acquainted with Western ideas through the books

Pamphlets and newspapers which were being increasingly published and through the education given by schools on the western model which were springing up the third quarter of the 19th century saw the formation of genuine political parties in turkey and in 1,876 the liberal groups actually rung

From a weak salt in the grant of a parliament these early successes of Muslim political liberalism were however followed by a period of reaction the Muslim princes had become increasingly alarmed at the growth of liberal agitation among their subjects and were determined to maintain their despotic Authority the new Sultan of turkey Abdul

Hamid promptly ressed his Parliament savagely persecuted the Liberals and restored the most uncompromising despotism in Persia the Shar repressed a nent liberal movement with equal severity while in Egypt the Spen Thrift rule of Kad Ismael ended all Native political Life by provoking European intervention and the imposition of

British rule down to the Young Turk revolution of 1908 there were few overt signs of liberal agitation in those Muslim countries which still retain their independence never nevertheless the agitation was there working underground hundreds of youthful Patriots fled abroad both to obtain an education and to conduct their liberal

Propaganda and from havens of Refuge like Switzerland these young Turks young Persians and others issued manifestos and published revolutionary literature which was smuggled into their homelands and eagerly read by their oppressed Brethren 115 as the years passed the cry for Liberty grew steadily in strength a young Turkish poet wrote at this time

All that we admire in European culture as the fruit of science and art is simply the outcome of Liberty everything derives its light from the bright star of Liberty without Liberty a nation has no power no Prosperity without Liberty there is no happiness and without happiness existence true life eternal life is

Impossible Everlasting praise and glory to The Shining Light of freedom 116 by the close of the 19th century keen-sighted European observers noted the working of the liberal ferment under the surface Cal of absolutist repression thus armenius vur revisiting Constantinople in 1,896 was astounded by the liberal Evolution that had taken place since his

First sojourn in Turkey 40 years before although Constantinople was subjected to the severest phase of hamidi and despotism vur wrote the old attachment of turkey for the absolute regime is done for we hear much in Europe of the Young Turk party we hear even of a constitutional movement political imigra revolutionary

Pamphlets but what we do not realize is the ferment which exists in the different social classes and which gives us the conviction that the Turk is in progress and is no longer clay in the hands of his despotic Potter in Turkey therefore it is not a question of a

Young Turk party because every civilized ottoman belongs to this party 117 in this connection we should note the stirrings of unrest that were now rapidly developing in the Eastern lands subject to European political control by the close of the 19th century only four considerable Muslim states turkey Persia Morocco and Afghanistan retained

Anything like independence from European domination since Afghanistan and Morocco were so backward that they could hardly be reckoned as civilized countries it was only in turkey and Persia that genuine liberal movements against native despotism could arise but in European ruled countries like India Egypt and Algeria the cultural level of the

Inhabitants was high enough to engender liberal political aspirations as well as that mere dislike of foreign rule which may be felt by Savages as well as by civilized peoples these liberal aspirations were of course stimulated by the movements against native Des ISM in turkey and Persia nevertheless the two

Sets of phenomena must be sharply distinguished from each other the Turkish and Persian agitations were essentially movements of liberal reform the Indian Egyptian Algerian and Kindred agitations were essentially movements for independence with no settled program as to how that Independence should be used after it had been attained these

Latter movements are in fact nationalist rather than liberal in character and it is in the chapters devoted to nationalism that they will be discussed the point to be noted here is that they are really coalitions against the foreign ruler of men holding very diverse political ideas embracing as these nationalist coalitions do not

Merely genuine liberals but also self-seeking demagogues and even Stark reactionaries who would like to fasten upon their liberated countries the Yoke of the blackest despotism of course all the Nationalist groups use the familiar slogans freedom and Liberty nevertheless what many of them mean is merely freedom and liberty

From foreign tutelage in other words Independence we must always remember that patriotism has no essential connection with liberalism the Spanish peasants who shouted Liberty as they Rose against Napoleon’s armies greeted their contemptible Tyrant King with Delirious enthusiasm and welcomed his glorification of absolutism with cries of long life chains the period of

Despotic reaction which had Afflicted turkey and Persia since the beginning of the last quarter of the 19th century came dramatically to an end in the year 1908 both countries exploded Into Revolution the Turks deposing the Tyrant Abdul Hamid the Persians Rising against their Infamous ruler Muhammad Ali sha

Perhaps the most perverted cowardly and vice Soden monster that had disgraced the Throne of Persia in many generations 118 these revolutions released the pent up liberal forces which had been slowly gathering strength under the repression of the previous generation and the upshot was that turkey and Persia alike blossomed out

With constitutions parliaments and all the other political Machinery of the West how the new regimes would have worked in normal times it is profitless to speculate because as a matter of fact the times were abnormal to the highest degree unfortunately for the Turks and Persians they had made their revolutions

Just when the world was entering that profound males which culminated in the Great War neither turkey nor Persia were allowed time to attempt the difficult process of political transformation linkside Western Chancellor noted every blunder and in the inevitable weakness of transition pounced upon them to their undoing the

Great War merely completed a process of Western aggression and Intervention which had begun some years before this virtual absence of specific fact data renders largely academic any discussion of the much de ated question whether or not the peoples of the near and Middle East are capable of self-government that

Is of establishing and maintaining ordered constitutional political life opinions on this point are at Absolute variance personally I have not been able to make up my mind on the matter so I shall content myself with stating the various arguments without attempting to draw any general conclusion before stating these

Contrasted viewpoints however I would draw attention to the distinction which should be made between the muhammadan peoples and the non- muhammadan Hindus of India Muslims everywhere possess the Democratic political example of Arabia as well as a religion which as regards its own followers at least contains many liberal Tendencies the Hindus have

Nothing like this their political tradition has been practically that of unrelieved Oriental despotism the only exceptions being a few primitive self-governing communities in very early times which never exerted any widespread influence and quickly faded away as for brahmanism the Hindu religion it is perhaps the most illiberal cult which

Ever Afflicted mankind dividing society as it does into an Infinity of rigid casts between which no real intercourse is possible each cast regarding all those of lesser rank as unclean polluting creatures scarcely to be distinguished from animals it is obvious that with such handicaps the establishment of true self government

Will be apt to be more difficult for Hindus than for muhammadans and the reader should keep this point in mind in the discussion which follows considering first the attitude of those who do not believe the peoples of the near and Middle East capable of real self-government in the western sense

Either now or in the immediate future we find this thesis both ably and emphatically stated by Lord Cromer Lord Cromer believed that the ancient tradition of despotism was far too strong to be overcome at least in our time from the dawn of History he asserts Eastern politics have been stricken with

A fatal Simplicity do not let us for one moment imagine that the fatally simple idea of despotic rule will readily give way to the far more complex conception of ordered Liberty the transformation if it ever takes place at all will probably be the work not of generations but of

Centuries our primary Duty therefore is not to introduce a system which under the specious cloak of free institutions will enable a small minority of natives to misgoverned countrymen but to establish one which will enable the mass of the population to be governed according to the code of Christian morality a freely elected Egyptian

Parliament supposing such a thing to be possible would not improbably legislate for the protection of the slave owner if not the slave dealer and no Assurance can be felt that the electors of Raj pipa if they had their own way would not reestablish Sai good government has the

Merit of presenting a more or less attainable ideal before orientals can attain anything approaching to the British ideal of self-government they will have to undergo very numerous transmigrations of political thought and Lord Cromer concludes pessimistically it will probably never be possible to make a western silk purse out of an Eastern souer

119 in similar vein the veteran English publicist Dr Dylan writing after the Turkish and Persian revolutions had little hope in their success and ridiculed the current faith in the sacramental virtue of constitutional government four he continues no parchment yet manufactured and no Constitution drafted by the sons of men

Can do away with the foundations of national character flashy phrases and elegant declamations May persuade people that they have been transmuted but they alter no fact s and in Persia’s case the facts point to utter incapacity for self-government referring to the Persian Revolution Dr Dylan continues at bottom

Only names of persons and things have been altered men may come and men may go but Anarchy goes on forever financial support of the new government is impossible for foreign capitalists will not give money to be squandered by filibusters and irresponsible agitators who like bubbles in boiling water appear

On the surface and disappear at once 120 a high French Colonial official thus characterizes the algerians and other Muslim populations of French North Africa our natives need to be governed they are big children incapable of going alone we should guide them firmly stand No Nonsense from them and crush

Intriguers and agents of sedition at the same time we should protect them direct them paternally and especially obtain influence over them by the constant example of our moral superiority above all no vain humanitarian Illusions both in the interest of France and of the natives themselves 121 many observers particularly Colonial

Officials have been disappointed with the way orientals have used experimental First Steps in self-government like advisory councils granted by the European rulers have used them that is to play politics and grasp for more power instead of devoting themselves to the duties assigned as Lord Kitchener

Said in his 1913 report on the state of Egypt representative bodies can only be safely developed when it is shown that they are capable of Performing adequately their present functions and that there is good hope that they could undertake still more important and arduous responsibilities if representative

Government in its simplest form is found to be unworkable the there is little Prospect of its becoming more useful when its scope is extended no government would be insane enough to consider that because an advisory Council had proved itself unable to carry out its functions in a reasonable and satisfactory manner

It should therefore be given a larger measure of power and control 122 these nationalist agitations arise primarily among the native upper classes and Western educated Elites however successful they may be in infl the ignorant masses who are often quite contented with the material benefits of enlightened European rule this point is

Well brought out by a leading American missionary in India with a lifetime of experience in that country who wrote some years ago the common people of India are now on the whole more contented with their government than they ever were before it is the classes rather who reveal the real Spirit of

Discontent if the common people were let alone by the agitators there would not be a more loyal people on Earth than the people of India but the educated classes are certainly possessed of a new ambition politically and will no longer remain satisfied with inferior places of responsibility and lower posts of

Imalent these people have little or no sympathy with the kind of government which is gradually being extended to them ultimately they do not ask for representative institutions which will give them a share in the government of their own land what they really seek is absolute control the Brahman only five per cent

Of the community believes that he has been divinely appointed to rule the country and would withhold the franchise from all others the suor the bat of India would no more think of giving the ballot to the 50 million par of the land than he would give it to his dog it is

The British power that has introduced and now maintains the equality of Rights and privileges for all the people of the land 123 the apprehension that India if liberated from British control might be exploited by a tyrannical Brahman oligarchy is shared not only by Western observers but also by multitudes of low

Cast Hindus known collectively as the depressed classes these people oppose the Indian nationalist agitation for fear of losing their present protection under the British Raj they believe that India still needs generations of education and social reform before it is fit for home rule much less Independence and they have organized into a powerful

Association the namasudra which is loyalist and anti-nationalist in character the namasudra Viewpoint is well expressed by its leader Dr n democracy as a catch word he says has already reached India and is widely used but the spirit of democracy still pauses east of Suz and will find it hard to

Secure a footing in a country where cast is strong WR strongly entrenched I do not want to lay the charge of oppressing the lower casts at the door of any particular cast all the higher casts take a hand in the game the Brahman oppresses all the non bramman

Casts the high cast non Brahman oppresses all the casts below him we want a real democracy and not an oligarchy however camouflaged by many high- sounding words moreover if an oligarchy is established now it will be a perpetual Archy we further say that we should prefer a delayed democracy to an

Immediate oligarchy having more trust in a sympathetic British bureaucracy than in an unsympathetic oligarchy of the so-called High casts who have been oppressing Us in the past and will do so again but for the British government our attitude is based not on faith alone but on the Instinct of self-preservation

124 many muhammadans as well as Hindus feel that India is not ripe for self government and that the relaxing of British Authority now or in the immediate future would be a grave disaster for India itself the Muslim loyalists reprobate the Nationalist agitation for the reasons expressed by

One of their representative men es kabar who remarks rightly or wrongly I have always kept aloof from Modern Indian politics and I have always held that we should devote more attention to social problems and intellectual advancement and less to politics which in our present condition is an unmixed evil I

Am firmly persuaded that we would consult our interest better by leaving politics severely alone it is not a handful of men armed with the learning and culture of the west but it is the masses that must feel understand and take an intelligent interest in their own Affairs the infinitesimal educated

Minority do not constitute the population of India it is the masses therefore that must be trained educated brought to the level of unassailable uprightness and Devotion to their country this goal is yet far beyond measurable reach but until we attain it our hopes will be a chimera and our

Efforts feudal and elusory even the educated minority have scarcely cast off the swaddling clothes of political infancy or have risen above the illusions of power and the Ambitions of Fortune we have yet to learn austerity of principle and rectitude of conduct nor can we hope to raise the standard of

Private and public morality so long as we continue to subordinate the interest of our community and Country to our own 125 such pronouncements as these from considerable portions of the native population give pause even to those liberal English students of Indian Affairs who are convinced of the theoretical desirability of Indian home

Rule as one of these Edwin bevon says when Indian nationalists ask for Freedom they mean autonomy they want to get rid of the Foreigner our answer as given in the reforms is 126 yes autonomy you shall have but on one condition that you have democracy as

Well we will give up the control as soon as there is an Indian people which can control its native rulers we will not give up the control to an Indian oligarchy this is the root of the disagreement between those who say that India might have self-government immediately and those who say that India

Can only become capable of self government with time for the former by self-government mean autonomy and it is perfectly true that India might be made autonomous immediately if the foreign control were withdrawn today some sort of indigenous government or group of governments would no doubt after a

Period of confusion come into being in India but it would not be democratic government it would be the despotic rule of the stronger or more cunning 127 the citations just quoted portray the standpoint of those critics both Western and Oriental who maintain that the peoples of the near and Middle East

Are incapable of self-government in our sense at least today or in the immediate future let us now examine the views of those who hold a more optimistic attitude some observers stress strongly Islam’s liberal Tendencies as a foundation on which to ere political structures in the modern sense vur says

Islam is still the most Democratic religion in the world a religion favoring both Liberty and equality if there ever was a constitutional government it was that of the first cffs 128 a close English student of the near East declares tribal Arabia has the only true form of democratic government and

The Arab tribesmen goes armed to make sure that it continues Democratic as many a would be desit knows to his cost 129 regarding the Young Turk revolution of 19 08 Professor liir remarks turkey was not so unprepared for parliamentary institutions as might at First Sight appear there lay hidden some precedent

Much preparation and a strong desire for parliamentary government both the religious and the secular institutions of turkey involve precedents for a parliament Mohammad himself conferred with the wisest of his companions the UL 130 have taken Council together up to the present time the sacred law sharat is fundamentally

Democratic and opposed in essence to absolutism the habit of regarding it as fundamental law enables even the most ignorant of muhammadans to grasp the idea of a constitution he points out that the early Sultans had their Divan or assemblage of high officials meeting regularly to give the sultan information

And advice while more recently there have been a council of state and a council of ministers also there were the parliaments of 1,877 and 1,878 abortive though these were and followed by Hamid Dian absolutism they were legal precedents never forgotten from all this professor liir concludes the Turkish Parliament May therefore be

Regarded not as a complete Innovation but as an enlargement and Improvement of familiar institutions 131 regarding Persia the American W Morgan Schuster whom the Persian revolutionary government called in to organize the country’s finances and who was ousted in less than a year by Russo British pressure expresses an optimistic

Regard for the political capacities of the Persian people I believe he says that there has never been in the history of the world an instance where a people changed suddenly from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional or representative form of government and at once succeeded in displaying a high

Standard of political wisdom and knowledge of legislative procedure such a thing is inconceivable and not to be expected by any reasonable person the members of the first met jales 132 were compelled to fight for their very existence from the day that the parliament was constituted they had no time for serious

Legislative work and but little H that any measures which they might enact would be put into effect the second and last met jales practically all of whose members I knew personally was doubtless incompetent if it were to be judged by the standards of the British Parliament or the American Congress it would be

Strange indeed if an absolutely new and untried government in a land filled with the decay of Ages should from the outset be able to conduct its business as well as governments with generations and even centuries of experience behind them we should make allowances for lack of technical knowledge for the important

Question of course is that the Met Jes in the main represented the new and just ideals and aspirations of the Persian people its members were men of more than average education some displayed remarkable Talent character and courage they responded enthusiastically to any patriotic suggestion which was put before them they themselves lacked any

Great knowledge of governmental finances but they realized the situation and were both willing and anxious to put their full confidence in any foreign advisers who showed themselves capable of resisting politic intrigues and bribery and working for the welfare of the Persian people no Parliament can rightly be termed incompetent when it has the

Support of an entire people when it recognizes its own limitations and when its members are willing to undergo great sacrifices for their nation’s dignity and Sovereign rights as to the Persian people themselves it is difficult to generalize the great mass of the population is composed of peasants and

Tribesmen all densely ignorant on the other hand many thousands have been educated abroad or have traveled after completing their education at home they or at least certain elements among them which had had the support of the masses proved their capacity to assimilate western civilization and ideals they changed despotism into democracy in the

Face of Untold obstacles opportunities were equalized to such a degree that any man of ability could occupy the highest official posts as a race showed during the past 5 years an unparalleled eagerness for Education hundreds of schools were established during the Constitutional regime a remarkable Free Press sprang up

Overnight and fearless writers came forward to denounce Injustice and tyranny whether from within their country or without the Persians were anxious to adopt wholesale the political ethical and business codes of the most modern and Progressive Nations they burned with that same Spirit of Asiatic unrest which pervades India which

Produced The Young Turk movement and which has more recently manifested itself in the establishment of the Chinese Republic 133 Mr Schuster concludes Kipling has intimated that you cannot Hustle the East this includes a warning and a reflection Western men and Western ideals can hustle the East provided the

Orientals realize that they are being carried along lines reasonably beneficial to themselves as a matter of fact the moral appeal and the appeal of race pride and patriotism are as strong in the east as in the west though it does not lie so near the surface and naturally the Oriental displays no great

Desire to be hustled when it is along lines beneficial only to the Westerner 134 indeed many Western liberals believe that European rule however benevolent and efficient will never prepare the Eastern peoples for True self-government and that the only way they will learn is by trying it out themselves this

Viewpoint is admirably stated by the well-known British publicist Lionel Curtis speaking of India Mr Curtis says that education and Kindred benefits conferred by British rule will not of themselves Avail to prepare Indians for the task of responsible government on the contrary education will prove a danger and positive mischief and less

Accompanied by a definite installment of political responsibility it is in the workshops of actual experience alone that electorates will Acquire The Art of self-government however Highly Educated they may be there must I urge be a Devolution of definite powers on electorates the officers of government 135 must give every possible help and

Advice to the new authorities for which those authorities may ask they must act as their Foster mothers not as stepmothers but if the new authorities are to to learn the art of responsible government they must be free from control from above not otherwise will they learn to feel themselves

Responsible to the electorate below nor will the electorates themselves learn that the remedy for their sufferings rests in their own hands suffering there will be and it is only by suffering self-inflicted and perhaps long endured that a people will learn the faculty of self-help and genuine electorates be

Brought into being I am proud to think that England land has conferred immeasurable good on India by creating order and showing Indians what orderly government means but this having been done I do not believe the system can now be continued as it is without positive damage to the character of the people

The burden of trusteeship must be transferred piece by piece from the shoulders of Englishmen to those of Indians in some sort able to Bear it their strength and numbers must be developed but that can be done by the exercise of actual responsibility steadily increased as they can bear it

It cannot be done by any system of school teaching though such teaching is an essential concomitant of the process the goal now set by the recent announcement of the Secretary of State 136 will only be reached through trouble yet troubless as the times before us may

Be we have at last reached that stage of our work in India which is truly consonant with our own Traditions the task is one worthy of of this epic in our history if only because it calls for the effacement of ourselves 137 Mr Kus is concluding words foreshadow a process which is today

Actually going on not only in India but in other parts of the East as well the Great War has so strengthened Eastern nationalist aspirations and has so weakened European power and Prestige that a widespread relaxing of Europe’s hold over the Orient is taking place this process may make for good or for

Ill but it is apparently inevitable and a generation perhaps a decade hence may see most of the near and Middle East autonomous or even independent whether the liberated peoples will misuse their opportunities and fall into despotism or Anarchy or whether they succeed in establishing orderly Progressive constitutional

Governments remains to be seen we have examined the factors pro and con let us leave the problem in the only way in which today it can scientifically be left on a note of interrogation footnotes 111 T Morrison Imperial rule in India p43 London 1,899 112 quoted from armenius vur

Western culture in eastern lands Pages 305 to 306 London 1906 113 ah liby the Turkish Parliament proceedings of the American Political Science Association Volume 7 p67 1910 114 vur opci p37 115 a good account of these liberal movements during the 19th century is found in vur Fry hean de run October 1

893 a shorter summary of bamber’s views is found in his Western culture in eastern lands especially Chapter V also see articles by Leon Kon previously noted in lavis ET ramid hiso General vs 11 and 12 116 vur Supra p332 117 vur L turkey d ETD Avan kants P22 Paris

1,898 118 W Morgan Schuster the Strangling of Persia pxxi New York 1912 119 chromer political and literary essays Pages 25 to 28 120 EJ Dylan Persia not ripe for self-government contemp temporary review April 1910 121 IM merer law question indene P220 Paris 1901 122 Egypt number one 1914 P6

123 Reverend JP Jones the present situation in India Journal of race development July 1910 124 Dr T mat a vanir cast and democracy Edinburgh review October 1918 125 book share essays Indian and Islamic Pages 213 to 214 London 1912 126 I.E the increase of self-government granted India by Britain as a result of

The monu Chelmsford report 100 and 27 EB the reforms in India the new Europe January 29th 1920 128 vur L turkey ddan KS p58 129 GW Berry pen Islam Pages 202 to 203 London 1919 130 the Assembly of religious notables 131 ah libar the Turkish Parliament proceedings of the American Political

Science Association Volume 7 Pages 66-67 1910 132 the name of the Persian Parliament 133 Schuster the Strangling of Persia Pages 240 to 246 134 ofid P3 333 135 I.E the British government of India 136 I.E the monague Chelmsford reforms previously noted 137 Lionel Curtis letters to the people of India on

Responsible government Pages 159 to 160 London 1918 chapter 5 nationalism the the spirit of nationality is one of the great dynamics of modern times in Europe where it first attains self-conscious maturity it radically altered the face of things during the 19th century so that that century is often called the age of

Nationalities but nationalism is not merely a European phenomenon it has spread to the remotest corners of the earth and is apparently still destined to affect momentous Transformations given a phenomenon of so vit a character the question at once arises what is nationalism curiously enough this question has been endlessly debated many

Theories have been Advanced seeking variously to identify nationalism with language culture race politics geography economics or religion now these and even other matters may be factors predisposing or contributing to the formation of national Consciousness but in the last analysis nationalism is something over and above all its constituent Elements which it

Works into a new and higher synthesis there is really nothing recondite or mysterious about nationalism despite all the arguments that have raged concerning its exact meaning as a matter of fact nationalism is a state of mind nationalism is a belief held by a fairly large number of individuals that they constitute a

Nationality it is a sense of belonging together as a nation this nation as visualized in the minds of its Believers is a people or Community Associated together and organized under one government and dwelling together in a distinct territory when the Nationalist ideal is realized we have what is known

As a body politic or state but we must not forget that the state is the material manifestation of an ideal which may have pre-existed for Generations as a mere Pious aspiration with no tangible attributes like State sovereignty or physical Frontiers conversely we must remember that a state need not be a nation

Witness the defunct hapsburg Empire of Austria Hungary an assemblage of discordant nationalities which Flew To Pieces under the shock of war the late war was a liberal education regarding nationalistic phenomena especially as applied to Europe and most of the fallacies regarding nationality were vividly disclosed it is enough to site

Switzerland a country whose very existence flagrantly violates tests like language culture religion or geography and we nevertheless a lively sense of nationality emerged triumphant from the ordeal of Armageddon so familiar are these matters to the general public that only one point need here be stressed the difference between nationality and race

Unfortunately the two terms have been used very Loosely if not interchangeably and are still much confused in current thinking as a matter of fact they canote utterly different things nationality is a psychological concept or State of Mind Race is a physiological fact which may be accurately determined by scientific

Tests such as skull measurement hair formation and color of eyes and skin in other words race is what people anthropologically really are nationality is what people politically think they are right here we encounter a most curious paradox there can be no question that as between race and nationality race is the more

Fundamental and in the long run the more important a man’s innate capacity is obviously dependent upon his heredity and no matter how stimulating may be his environment the potential limits of his reaction to that environment are fixed at his birth nevertheless the fact remains that men pay scant attention to

Race while nationalism stirs them to their very Souls the main reason for this seems to be because it is only about half a century since even Savant realized the true nature and importance of race even after an idea is scientifically established it takes a long time for it to be genuinely

Accepted by the public and only after it has been thus accepted will it form the basis of practical conduct meanwhile the far older idea of nationality has permeated the popular Consciousness and has thereby been able to produce tangible effects in fine our political life is still dominated by nationalism rather than

Race and practical politics are thus conditioned not by What Men really are but by what they think they are the late war is a striking case in point that war is very generally regarded as having been one of race the idea certainly lent to the struggle much of its bitterness

And uncompromising fury and yet from the genuine racial standpoint it was nothing of the the kind ethnologists have proved conclusively that apart from certain Paleolithic survivals and a few historically recent Asiatic Intruders Europe is inhabited by only three stocks one the blonde long-headed Nordic race two the medium complexion round-headed

Alpine race three the brunette long-headed Mediterranean race these races are so dispersed and intermingled that every European nation is built of at least two of the stocks While most are compounded of all three strictly speaking therefore the European war was not a race war at all but a domestic

Struggle between closely knit blood relatives now all this was known to most well-educated Europeans long before 1914 and yet it did not make the slightest difference the reason is that in spite of everything the vast majority of Europeans still believe that they fit into an entirely different race category

Or they think they belong to the tonic race the Latin race the slav race or the Anglo-Saxon race the fact that these so-called races simply do not exist but are really historical differentiations based on language and culture which cut sublimely across genuine race lines all that is quite beside the point your

European May apprehend this intellectually but so long as it remains an intellectual novelty it will have no appreciable effect upon his cond in his heart of hearts he will still believe himself a Latin a tutan an Anglo-Saxon or a slav for his blood race he will not stir for his thought race he

Will die for the glory of the Doos cilic Nordic or the bratches calic Alpine he will not prick his finger or wager a groat for the Triumph of the tutan or the slav he will give his last Farthing and shed his heart’s blood in other words not what men really are but what

They think they are at first it may seem strange that in contemporary Europe thought race should be all powerful while blood race is impotent yet there are very good reasons not only has modern Europe’s great Dynamic been nationalism but also nationalism has seized upon the nassin racial concept

And has perverted it to its own ends until quite recent times nationality was a distinctly intensive concept conting approximate identity of culture language and historic past it was the iCal product of a relatively narrow European Outlook indeed it grew out of a still narrower Outlook which had contented

Itself with the regional feudal and dialectic loyalties of the Middle Ages but the first half of the 19th century saw a still further widening of the European Outlook to a continental or even to a world Horizon at once the early concept of nationality ceased to satisfy nationalism became extensive it

Tended to embrace all those of kindred speech culture and historic tradition however distant such persons might be obviously a new terminology was required the key word was presently discovered race hence we get that whole series of pseudo race phrases Pang germanism panslavism pan angelism pan latinism and

The rest of course these are not racial at all they merely signify nationalism brought up to date but the European people with all the fervor of the Nationalist faith that is in them believe and Proclaim them to be racial hence so far as practical politics are concerned they

Are racial and will so continue while the Nationalist Dynamic endures this new development of nationalism the racial stage as we may call it was at first confined to the older centers of European civilization but with the spread of Western ideas it presently appeared in the most unexpected quarters

Its Advent in the Balkans for example quickly engendered those fanatical propagandas panhellenism paneris Etc which turned that unhappy region first into a be garden and laterally into a witch’s Sabbath Meanwhile by the closing Decades of the 19th century the first phase of nationalism had patently passed into Asia the Young Turk and young

Egyptian movements and the Nationalist stirrings in regions so far remote from each other as Algeria Persia and India were unmistakable signs that Asia was gripped by the initial throws of nationalist self-consciousness Furthermore with the opening years of the 20th century numerous symptoms proclaimed the fact that in Asia as in the Balkans the

Second or racial stage of nationalism had begun these years saw the definite emergence of farflung pan movements pan turanism pan arabism and most amazing of app Cent paradoxes pan-islamic nationalism one let us now trace the Genesis and growth of nationalism in the near and Middle East devoting the present chapter to nationalist

Developments in the Muslim world with the exception of India India requires special treatment because their nationalist activity has been mainly the work of the non-muslim Hindu element Indian Nationalism has followed a course differing distinctly from that of Islam and will therefore be considered in the following chapter before it received the

Western impact of the 19th century the Islamic world was virtually devoid of self-conscious nationalism there were to be sure strong local and tribal loyalties there was intense dynastic sentiment like the Turk Devotion to their parishes the ottoman Sultans there was also marked pride of race such as the Arabs conviction that

They were the chosen people here obviously were potential nationalist elements but these elements were as yet dispersed and uncoordinated they were not yet fused into the new synthesis of self-conscious nationalism the only Muslim people which could be said to possess anything like true nationalist feeling were the Persians with their traditional Devotion

To their Plateau land of Iran the various peoples of the Muslim world had thus at most a rudimentary incoit nationalist Consciousness a dull inert AR Spirit capable of development perhaps but as yet scarcely perceptible even to Outsiders and certainly unperceived by themselves furthermore Islam itself was in many respects hostile to

Nationalism Islam’s insistence upon the Brotherhood of all True Believers and the Islamic political ideal of the imamat or Universal Theocratic democracy naturally tended to inhibit the formation of sovereign mutually exclusive National units just as the nassin nationalities of Renaissance Europe conflicted with the medieval ideals of universal papacy and Holy

Roman Empire given such an unfavorable environment it is not strange to see Muslim nationalist Tendencies germinating obscurely and confusedly throughout the first half of the 19th century not until the second half of the century is there any clear conception of nationalism in the western sense there are distinct nationalist tendencies in

The teachings of jaled Al Afghani who is philosophically the connecting link between pan islamism and Muslim nationalism while the Turkish reformers of the mid 19th century were patently influenced by nationalism as they were by other Western ideas it was in fact in turkey that a true nationalist Consciousness first appeared working

Upon the Turks traditional Devotion to their Dynasty and pride in themselves as a ruling race lording it over many subject peoples both Christian and Muslim the Turkish nationalist movement made rapid progress precisely as in Europe the Nationalist movement in Turkey began with a Revival of historic memories and

A purification of the language half a century ago the ottoman Turks knew almost nothing about their origins or their history the martial Deeds of their ancestors and the stirring annals of their empire were remembered only in a vague legendary fashion the study of the National History being completely neglected religious discussions and

Details of the life of Muhammad or the early days of Islam interested men more than the spread of Ottoman power in three continents the Nationalist Pioneers taught their fellow countrymen their historic glories and awakened both pride of past and confidence in the future similarly with the Turkish language the early nationalists found it

Virtually cleft in Twain on the one hand was official Turkish a clumsy hotch poot overloaded with flowers of rhetoric and cryptic Expressions borrowed from Arabic and Persian this extraordinary jargon couched in a bombastic style was virtually unintelligible to the masses the masses on the other hand spoke popular Turkish

A Primitive limited idiom divided into many dialects and despised as uncouth and borish by educated persons the nationalists changed all this appreciating the simple direct strength of the Turkish tongue nationalist enthusiasts trained in European principles of grammar and philology proceeded to build up a real Turkish language in the western sense so well

Did they succeed that in less than a generation they produced a simplified flexible Turkish which was used effectively by both journalists and Men of letters was intelligible to all classes and became the unquestioned vehicle for thought and the cannon of style 138 of course the chief stimulus to Turkish nationalism was Western

Political pressure the more men came to love their country and aspire to its future the more European assaults on Turkish territorial Integrity spurred them to defend their threatened Independence the Nationalist ideal was ottomanism the welding of a real nation in which all citizens whatever their origin or Creed should be Ottomans

Speaking the Turkish language and inspired by ottoman patriotism this however conflicted sharply with the Rival and prior nationalisms of the Christian peoples of the empire to say nothing of the new Arab nationalism which was taking shape at just the same time Turkish nationalism was also frowned on by

Sultan Abdul Hamid Abdul Hamid had an instinctive aversion to all nationalist movements both as limitations to his personal absolutism and as conflicting with that Universal pan-islamic ideal on which he based his policy accordingly even those Turkish nationalists who proclaimed complete loyalty were suspect while those with li Tendencies were

Persecuted and driven into Exile the revolution of 1908 however brought nationalism to power whatever their differences on other matters The Young Turks were all Ardent nationalists in fact the very artor of their nationalism was a prime cause of their subsequent misfortunes with the rashness of Fanatics The Young Turks tried to

Automize the whole empire at once this enraged all the other nationalities alienated them from the Revolution and gave the Christian Balan States their opportunity to attack disorganized turkey in 1912 the truth of the matter was that Turkish nationalism was evolving in a direction which could only mean heightened antagonism between the

Turkish element on the one side and the non-turkish elements Christian or Muslim on the other Turkish nationalism had in fact now reached the second or racial stage passing the bounds of The Limited mainly territorial idea connoted by the term ottomanism it had embraced the far-flung and essentially racial

Concepts known as pan turkism and paninis these wider developments we shall consider later on in this chapter before so doing let us examine the beginnings of nationalism’s first stage in other portions of the Muslim World shortly after the ottoman Turks showed signs of a nationalistic Awakening Kindred symptoms began to appear among

The Arabs as in all self-conscious nationalist movements it was largely a protest against some other group in the case of the Arabs this protest was naturally directed against their Turkish rulers we have already seen how desert Arabia the Ned had always maintained its freedom and we have also seen how those

Arab lands like Syria Mesopotamia and the hez which fell under Turkish control nevertheless continued to feel an ineradicable repugnance at seeing themselves Islam’s chosen people beneath the Yoke of a folk which in Arab eyes were mere upstart barbarians despite a thousand years of Turkish domination the two races never

Got unwell together their racial temperaments being too incompatible for really cordial relations the profound temperamental incompatibility of Turk and Arab has been well summarized by a French writer says Victor Bard such are the two languages and such the two peoples in the latitude of Rome and in the latitude

Of algers the Turk of adrianople like the Turk of Adelia remains a man of the north and of the extreme North in all climates the Arab remains a man of the South and of the extreme South to the Arab suppleness Mobility imagination artistic feeling Democratic Tendencies and anarchic individualism The Turk

Opposes his slowness gravity sense of discipline and regularity innate militarism the Turkish master has always felt disdained for the artistic Canal whose pose gesticulations and indiscipline shock him profoundly on their side the Arabs see in the Turk only a blockhead in his placidity and Tac eternity only stupidity and

Ignorance in his respect for law only slavishness and in his love of material well-being only gross bestiality especially do the Arabs cheer at the Turks artistic incapacity after having gone to school to the Chinese Persians Arab and Greeks The Turk remains in Arab eyes just a big booby of baric and Barnyard

139 add to this the fact that the Arabs regard the Turks as perverter of the Islamic faith and we need not be surprised to find that turkey’s Arab subjects have ever displayed symptoms of rebellious unrest we have seen how the wahhab movement was specifically directed against Turkish control of the

Holy cities and despite the wahhabi defeat Arab discontent lived on about 1,820 the German explorer burkard wrote Of Arabia when Turkish power in the hij Jaz declines the Arabs will avenge themselves for their subjection 140 and some 20 years later the Sharif of Mecca remarked to a French

Traveler we the direct descendants of the Prophet have to bow our heads before miserable passes most of them former Christian slaves come to power by the most shameful courses 141 throughout the 19th century every Turkish defeat in Europe was followed by a seditious Outburst in its

Arab provinces down to the middle of the 19th century these sedici stirrings remained sporadic uncoordinated outbursts of religious Regional or tribal feeling with no genuinely nationalistic program of action or ideal but in the later 60s a real nationalist agitation appeared its birthplace was Syria that was what might have been Ed

Since Syria was the part of turkey’s Arab dominions most open to Western influences this first Arab nationalist movement however did not amount to much directed by a small group of noisy agitators devoid of real ability the Turkish government suppressed it without much difficulty the disastrous Russian war of

1,877 however blew the scattered Embers into a fresh flame for several years turkey’s air Arab provinces were in full ferment the nationalists spoke openly of throwing off the Turkish yoke and Welding the Arab lands into hallucinate Confederation headed by a religious potentate probably the Sharie of Mecca this was obviously an adaptation of

Western nationalism to the traditional Arab ideal of a Theocratic democracy already realized in the meccan caliphate and the wahabi government of the Ned this second stirring of Arab nationalism was likewise of short duration turkey was now ruled by Sultan Abdul Hamid and Abdul hamid’s pan-islamic policy looked toward good relations with his Arab

Subjects accordingly Arabs were welcomed at Constantinople favors were heaped upon Arab Chiefs and notables while efforts were made to promote the contentment of the Empire’s Arab populations at the same time the construction of strategic Railways in Syria and the hij Jaz gave the Turkish government a stronger grip over its Arab

Provinces than ever before and conversely rendered successful Arab revolts a far more remote possibility furthermore Abdul hamid’s pan-islamic propaganda was specially directed toward Awakening A sense of Muslim solidarity between Arabs and Turks as against the Christian West these efforts achieved a measure of success certainly every European

Aggression in the near East was an object lesson to Turks and Arabs to forget or at least adjourn their domestic quarrels in face of the common foe despite the partial successes of Abdul hamid’s efforts a considerable section of his Arab subjects remained unreconciled and toward the close of the

19th century a fresh stirring of Arab nationalist discontent made its appearance relentlessly persecuted by the Turkish authorities the Arab nationalist agitators mostly syrians went into Exile gathering in nearby Egypt now of course under British governance and in Western Europe these Exiles organized a revolutionary propaganda their formal organization dates from the year

1,895 when the Arabian National Committee was created at Paris for a decade their propaganda went on obscurely but evidently with effect for in 1905 the Arab provinces of hez and Yemen burst into armed Insurrection this Insurrection despite the best efforts of the Turkish government was never wholly suppressed

But dragged done year after year draining turkey of troops and treasure and contributing materially to her tripolitan and Balkan disasters in 1911 to2 the Arab Revolt of 1905 focused the world’s attention upon the Arab question and the Nationalist Exiles made the most of their Opportunity by redoubling their

Propaganda not only at home but in the west as well Europe was fully informed of young Arabia’s wrongs and aspirations notably by an extremely clever book by one of the Nationalist leaders entitled The Awakening of the Arab Nation 142 which made a distinct sensation the aims of the Arab

Nationalists are clearly set forth in the manifesto of the Arabian National Committee addressed to the great powers and published early in 1906 says this Manifesto A Great Pacific change is on the eve of occurring in Turkey the Arabs whom the Turks tyrannized over only by keeping them divided on insignificant questions of

Ritual and religion have become conscious of their National Historic and racial homogeneity and wish to detach themselves from the worm eaten ottoman trunk in order to form themselves into an independent state this new Arab Empire will extend to its natural Frontiers from The Valleys of the Tigris

And Euphrates to the ismus of Suz and from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Oman it will be governed by the Constitutional and liberal monarchy of an Arabian Sultan the president V yet of the hijas together with the territory of Medina will form an independent Empire

Whose Sovereign will be at the same time the religious khif of all the muhammadans thus one great difficulty the separation of the civil and the religious powers in Islam will have been solved for the greater good of all to their fellow Arabs the committee issued the following Proclamation dear

Compatriots all of us know how vile and Despicable the Glorious and illustrious title of a Arabian citizen has become in the mouths of all foreigners especially Turks all of us see to What depths of misery and ignorance we have fallen under the tyranny of these barbarians sprung from Central Asia our land the

Richest and finest on Earth is today an arid waste when we were free we conquered the world in a 100 years we spread everywhere Sciences arts and letters for centuries we LED World Civilization but since the spawn of veral 143 usurp the caliphate of Islam they have brutalized us so as to exploit

Us to such a degree that we have become the poorest people on Earth the proclamation then goes on to declare Arabia’s Independence 144 of course young Arabia did not then attain its independence the Revolt was kept localized and turkey maintained its hold over most of its Arab dominions nevertheless there was

Constant unrest during the remainder of Abdul hamid’s Reign his Arab provinces were in a sort of unstable equilibrium Torn Between the forces of nationalist sedition on the one hand and pan-islamic anti-european feeling on the other the Young Turk revolution of 1908 caused a new shift in the situation the Arab provinces like the

Other parts of the empire rejoiced in the downfall of despotism and hoped great things for the future in the Turkish Parliament the Arab provinces were well represented and their deputies asked for a measure of federal autonomy this The Young Turks bent upon automization curtly refused the result was profound disillusionment in the Arab

Provinces and a Revival of separatist agitation it is interesting to note that the new Independence agitation had a much more ambitious program than that of a few years before the Arab nationalists of Turkey were by this time definitely linking up with the nationalists of Egypt and French North Africa arabic

Speaking lands where the populations were at least partly Arab in blood Arab nationalism was beginning to speak aloud what it had previously whispered the program of a great pen Arab Empire stretching right across North Africa and Southern Asia from the Atlantic to the Indian oceans thus Arab nationalism like

Turkish nationalism was evolving into the second or racial stage deferring discussion of this broader development let us follow a trifle further the course of the more restricted Arab nationalism within the Turkish Empire despite the pan Islamic sentiment evoked by the European aggressions of 1911 to2 nationalist feeling was continually

Aroused by the ottoman ising measures of the Young Turk government and the independence agitation was presently in full swing once more in 1913 an Arabian nationalist Congress convened in Paris and revolutionary propaganda was inaugurated on an increased scale when the Great war broke out next year turkey’s Arab provinces were seething

With seditious unrest 145 the Turkish authorities took sternn measures against possible trouble imprisoning and executing all prominent nationalists upon whom they could lay their hands while the proclamation of the holy war rallied a certain portion of Arab public opinion to the Turkish side especially since the conquest of Egypt was a

Possibility but as the war dragged on the forces of discontent once more raised their heads in 1916 the Revolt of the Sharie of Mecca gave the signal for the downfall of Turkish rule this Revolt liberally backed by England gained the active or passive support of the Arab elements throughout the Turkish Empire

Inspired by Allied Promises of national independence of a most alluring character the Arabs fought strenuously against the Turks and were a prime factor in the debacle of Ottoman military power in the Autumn of 1918 146 before discussing the momentous events which have occurred in the Arab provinces of the former Ottoman Empire

Since 1918 let us consider nationalist developments in the arabized regions of North Africa lying to the westward of these developments the most important is that of Egypt the mass of the Egyptian people is today as in Pharaoh’s time of the Old nylonic Stock a slow self-contained peasant folk the Egyptian

Fahin have submitted passively to a long series of conqueror albeit this paity has been occasionally broken by outbursts of volcanic Fury presently dying away into passivity once more above the nylonic masses stands a relatively small upper class descended chiefly from Egypt’s more recent Asiatic conquerors Arabs Kurds circassians

Albanians and Turks in addition to this upper class which until the English occupation monopolized all political power there are large European colonies with extr territorial rights while a further complication is added by the Persistence of a considerable native Christian element the cops who refused to turn mohamedan at the Arab conquest

And who today number fully 1/10th of the total population with such a medley of races Creeds and cultures and with so prolonged a tradition of foreign domination Egypt might seem a most unlikely meu for the growth of nationalism on the other hand Egypt has been more exposed to Western influences

Than any other part of the near East bonapart Invasion at the close of the 18th century profoundly affected Egyptian life and though the French were soon expelled European influences continued to permeate the Valley of the Nile mamed Ali the able Albanian adventurer who made himself master of

Egypt after the downfall of French rule realized the superiority of European methods and fostered a process of europeanization which however superficial resulted in a wide dissemination of Western ideas mahmmed Ali’s policy was continued by his successors that magnificent Spen Thrift Kad is whose Reckless contraction of European loans was the primary cause of

European intervention prided himself on his europeanism and surrounded himself with Europeans indeed the first stirrings of Egyptian nationalism took the form of a protest against the noxious parasitical europeanism of Kad ISM and his cers sober-minded Egyptians became increasingly alarmed at the way isma was mortgaging Egypt’s independence by huge

European loans and sucking its lifeblood by merciless taxation inspired consciously or unconsciously by the Western concepts of nation and patriotism these men desired to stay isma’s destructive course and to safeguard Egypt’s future in fact their efforts were directed not merely against the mly crew of European adventurers and

Concessionaires who were luring the Kad into fresh extravagances but also against the complacent Turkish and circassian pases and the Armenian and Syrian usurers who were the instruments of isma’s will the nassin movement was thus basically a patriotic protest against all those both foreigners and native born who were endangering the

Country this showed clearly in the motto adopted by the agitators the hither to unheard of slogan Egypt for the Egyptians into this incipient ferment there was present ly injected the dynamic personality of JAL edin nowhere else did this extraordinary man exert so profound and Lasting an influence as in

Egypt it is not too much to say that he is the father of every shade of Egyptian nationalism he influenced not merely violent agitators like Arabi Pasha but also conservative reformers like shik Mohammad Abdu who realized Egypt’s weakness and were content to labor Patiently by evolutionary methods for

Distant goals for the moment the Apostles of violent action had the stage in 1,882 a revolutionary agitation broke out headed by Arabi Pasha an army officer who significantly enough was of fella origin the first man of nilotic stock to sway Egypt’s Destinies in modern times raising their slogan Egypt

For the Egyptians the revolutionist sought to drive all foreigners both Europeans and asiatics from the country their attempt was of course for doomed to failure a massacre of Europeans in the port city of Alexandria at once precipitated European intervention an English army crushed the revolutionists

At the Battle of Tel Al Kabir and after this one battle disorganized bankrupt Egypt submitted to British rule personified by evand bearing Lord Cromer the cial dynasty was to be sure retained and the native forms of government respected but all real power centered in the hands of the British financial

Adviser the representative of Britain’s Imperial will for 25 years Lord Cromer ruled Egypt and the record of this able proconsul will place him forever in the front rank of the world’s great administrators his strong hand Drew Egypt from hopeless bankruptcy into abounding Prosperity material well-being however did not kill Egyptian

Nationalism scattered to the wines before the brtish bayonet charges the seeds of unrest slowly germinated beneath the fertile nyic oil almost imperceptible at first under the numbing shock of Tel Al cabir nationalist sentiment grew steadily as the years wore on and by the closing decade of the 19th century it had become distinctly

Perceptible to keen-sighted European observers passing through Egypt in 1,8 95 the well-known African explorer schwein furth was struck with the psychological change which had occurred since his earlier visits to the Valley of the Nile a true National self-consciousness is slowly beginning to awaken he wrote the Egyptians are

Still very far from being a true nationality but the beginning has been made 147 with the opening years of the 20th century what had previously been visible only to Discerning eyes burst into sudden and startling Bloom this resurgent Egyptian nationalism had to be sure it its moderate Wing represented by

Conservative-minded men like Mohammad Abdu Rector of elazer University and respected friend of Lord Cromer who sought to teach his fellow countrymen that the shest road to Freedom was along the path of Enlightenment and progress in the main however the movement was an impatient and violent protest against British rule and an intransigent demand

For immediate Independence perhaps the most significant point was that virtually all Egyptians were nationalists at heart conservatives as well as radicals declining to consider Egypt as a permanent part of the British Empire the nationalists had a sound legal basis for this attitude owing to the fact that British rule rested upon insecure diplomatic

Foundations England had intervened in Egypt as a self-constituted mandatory of European Financial interests its action had roused much opposition in Europe particularly in France and to allay this opposition the British government had repeat ly announced that its occupation of Egypt was of a temporary nature in fact Egyptian discontent was

Deliberately fanned by France right down to the conclusion of the unun cordal in 1904 this French sympathy for Egyptian aspirations was of capital importance in the development of the Nationalist movement in Egypt France’s cultural Prestige was predominant in Egyptian eyes a European education was synonymous with a French education so the rising

Generation inevitably sat under French teachers either in Egypt or in France and these French preceptors being usually anglophobe rarely lost an opportunity for instilling dislike of England and aversion to British rule the radical nationalists were headed by a young man named Musta camel he was a very Prince of agitators ardent magnetic

Enthusiastic and possessed of a fiery eloquence which fairly Swept Away both his hearers and his readers and indefatigable propagandist he edited a whole chain of newspapers and periodicals and as fast as one organ was suppressed by the British authorities he started another his uncompromising nationalism may be gauged from the

Following examples from his writings taking for his motto the phrase the Egyptians for Egypt Egypt for the Egyptians he wrote as early as 1,896 Egyptian civilization cannot endure in the future unless it is founded by the people itself unless the fowa the merchant the teacher the pupil

In fine every single Egyptian knows that man has sacred intangible rights that he is not created to be a tool but to lead an intelligent and worthy life that love of country is the most beautiful sentiment which can en a soul and that a nation without Independence is a nation

Without existence It Is by patriotism that backward peoples come quickly to civilization to great greatness and to power it is patriotism that forms the blood which courses in the veins of viral Nations and it is patriotism that gives life to every living being the English of course were bitterly

Denounced here is a typical editorial from his organ L leat we are the despoiled the English are the despoilers we demand a sacred right the English are the usurpers of that right this is why we are sure of success sooner or later when one is in the right

It is only a question of time despite his Ardent aspirations M A Camel had a sense of realities and recognized that for the moment at least British power could not be forcibly overthrown he did not therefore attempt any open violence which he knew would merely ruin himself and his followers

Early in 1908 he died only 34 years of age his mantle fell upon his leading disciple Mohammad fared B this man who was not of equal caliber tried to make up for his deficiency in true eloquence by the violence of his invective the difference between the two leaders can

Be gauged by the editorial Columns of el Lewa here is an editorial of September 1909 this land was polluted by the English putrified with their atrocities as they suppressed our beloved duster Constitution tied our tongues burned our people alive and hanged our innocent relatives and perpetrated other Horrors

At which the heavens are about to tremble the Earth to split and the mountains to fall down let us take a new Step let our lives be cheap while we seek our independence death is far better than life for you if you remain in your present condition Muhammad fed’s

Fanatical impatience of all opposition led him into tactical blunders like alienating the native Christian cops whom mic Camel had been careful to conciliate the following diet tribe which by the way reveals a grotesque jumble of Western and Eastern ideas is an answer to Coptic protests at the increasing violence of his propaganda

The cops should be kicked to death they still have faces and bodies similar to those of demons and monkeys which is a proof that they hide poisonous Spirits within their souls the fact that they exist in the world confirms Darwin’s theory that human beings are generated from monkeys you sons of adulterous

Women you descendants of the bearers of trays you Tales of camels with your monkey faces you bones of bodies in this more violent attitude the nationalists were encouraged by several reasons for one thing Lord Cromer had laid down his proc Consulate in 1907 and had been

Succeeded by Sir Elden gor the new ruler represented the ideas of British liberalism now in power which wished to appease Egyptian unrest by conciliation instead of by Lord Cromer’s autocratic indifference in the second place the Young Turk revolution of 1908 gave an enormous impetus to the Egyptian cry for constitutional

Self-government lastly France’s growing intimacy with England dashed the nationalists cherished hope that Britain would be forced by outside pressure to redeem her diplomatic pledges and Evacuate the Nile Valley thus driving the nationalists to rely more on their own exertion given this nationalist temper conciliatory attempt was for doomed to

Failure for however conciliatory sir Elden gor might be in details he could not promise the one thing which the nationalists supremely desired Independence this demand England refused even to consider practically all Englishmen had become convinced that Egypt with the sus Canal was a vital link between the eastern and western

Halves of the British Empire and that permanent control of EG eypt was thus an absolute necessity there was thus a fundamental deadlock between British Imperial and Egyptian National convictions accordingly the British liberal policy of consilier a fiasco even sir Elden gor admitted in His official reports that concessions were

Simply regarded as signs of weakness before long seditious agitation and attendant violence grew to such proportions that the British government became convinced that only strong measures would save the situation therefore in 1911 sir Elden gor was replaced by Lord Kitchener a patent warning to the nationalists that

Sedition would be given short shrift by the iron hand which had crushed the Khalifa and his dervish hordes at amerman Kitchener arrived in Egypt with the express mandate to restore order and this he did with thoroughness and exactitude the Egyptians were told plainly that England neither intended to

Evacuate the Nile Valley nor considered its inhabitants fit for self-government within any discernable future they were admonished to turn their thoughts from politics at which they were so bad to agriculture at which they were so good as for sedici propaganda new legislation enabled Lord Kitchener to deal with it

In summary fashion practically all the Nationalist papers were suppressed while the Nationalist leaders were imprisoned intered or exiled in fact the British government did its best to distract attention everywhere from Egypt the British press Co operating loyally by labeling the subject taboo the upshot was that Egypt became quieter than it

Had been for a generation however it was only a surface Cal driven underground Egyptian unrest even attained new virulence which alarmed close observers in 1913 the well-known English publicist Sydney low after a careful investigation of the Egyptian situation wrote we are not popular in Egypt fear we may be by some

Respected I doubt not by many others but really liked I am sure by very few 148 still more outspoken was an article significantly entitled The Darkness over Egypt which appeared on the eve of the Great War 149 its publication in a semi-scientific periodical for specialists in Oriental problems rendered it worthy of serious

Attention the long continued absence of practically all discussion or even mention of EGP Ian internal affairs from the British press asserted this article is not indicative of a healthy condition in Egypt The Superficial quiet is that of suppressed discontent of aen hopeless mistrust toward the government of the occupation certain recent happenings

Have strengthened in Egyptian Minds The conviction that the government is making preparations for the complete annexation of the country we are not concerned to question how far the motives attributed to the government are true the essential fact is that the government of the occupation has not yet succeeded in

Endearing or even recommending itself to the Egyptian people but is on the contrary an object of Suspicion an occasion of enmity the article expresses grave doubt whether Lord kitchener’s repressive measures have done more than drive discontent underground and shows how strong is the Nationalist feeling in Egypt today in spite of the determined

Attempts to Stamp Out All freedom of political opinion as might be expected this wholesale musling of the press has not only reduced the muhammadan majority to a condition of internal ferment but has seriously alienated the hitherto loyal cops it may be that the government can discover no better means of

Recommending itself to the confidence and Goodwill of the Egyptian people it may be that only by the instant repression of every outward sign of discontent can it feel secure in its occupation but if such be the case it is an admission of extreme weakness or recognized insecurity of tenure the

Article concludes with the following warning as to the problems wider implications Egypt though a subject of profound indifference to the English voter is being feverishly watched by the Indian muhammadans and by the whole of our West and Central African subjects themselves strongly Muslim in sympathy and at the present time jealously

Suspicious of the political activities of Christian imperialism such being the state of Egyptian feeling in 1914 the outbreak of the Great War was bound to produce intensified unrest England’s position in Egypt was in truth very difficult although in fact England exercised complete control in law Egypt was still

A dependency of the Ottoman Empire Britain merely exercising a temporary occupation now it soon became evident that turkey was going to join England’s enemies the tonic Empires while it was equally evident that the Egyptians sympathized with the Turks even the Kad abass Hill me making no secret of his

Protur Turkish views during the first months of the European War while turkey was still nominally neutral the Egyptian native press despite the British censorship was full of veiled seditious statements while the unruly attitude of the Egyptian populace and the stirrings among the Egyptian native regiments left

No doubt as to how the wind was blowing England was seriously alarmed accordingly when turkey entered the war in November 1914 England took the decisive plunge deposed abass Hill me nominated his cousin Hussein camel Sultan and declared Egypt a protectorate of the British Empire this stung the nationalists to

Fury anything like formal rebellion was rendered Impossible by the heavy masses of British and Colonial troops which had been poured into the country nevertheless there was a good deal of sporadic violence suppressed only by a Stern application of the state of Siege a French Observer thus vividly describes

These critical days the Jihad is rousing the anti-christian fanaticism which always stirs in the soul of every good Muslim since the end of October one could read in the eyes of the low-class muhammadan natives their hope the massacre of the Christians in the streets of Cairo they stared insolently

At the European passers by some even danced for Joy on learning that the sultan had declared the holy war denounced to the police for this they were incontinently bastinadoed at the nearest police station the same state of mind reigned at elazer and I am told that Europeans who visit the celebrated

Muhammadan University have their ears filled with the strongest epithets of the Arab Repertory that best furnished language in the world 150 the Nationalist Exiles vehemently expressed abroad what their fellows could not say at home their leader Mohammad fared Bay issued from Geneva an official protest against the new illegal

Regime proclaimed by England the 18th of last December England which pretends to make war on Germany to defend Belgium ought not to trample underfoot the rights of Egypt nor consider the treaties relative theret as scraps of paper 151 these Exiles threw themselves vehemently into the arms of Germany as

May be gauged from the following remarks of abdl Malik hamsa Secretary of the Nationalist party in a German periodical there is hardly an Egyptian who does not pray that England may be beaten and her Empire fall in Ruins during the early days of the war while I was still in

Egypt I was a witness of this popular feeling in cities and Villages from Sage to simple peasant all are convinced in the Kaiser’s love for Islam and friendship for its cff and they are hoping and praying for Germany’s Victory 152 of course in face of the overwhelming British Garrison in Egypt

Such pronouncements were as Idle as the wind the hope for Turkish attacks were beaten back from the sus Canal the state of Siege functioned with Stern efficiency and Egypt flooded with British troops lapsed into Solen silence not to be broken until the end of the war turning back at this point to

Consider nationalist developments in the rest of North Africa we do not as in Egypt find a well-marked territorial patriotism anti-european hatred there is in plenty but such patriotic sentiments as exist belong rather to those more diffused types of nationalist feeling known as pan arabism and pan-islamic nationalism which we shall presently

Discuss the basic reason for this North African lack of national feeling in its restricted sense is that nowhere outside of Egypt is there a land which ever has been or which shows distinct signs of becoming a true nation the mass of the populations in inhabiting the vast band of Territory between the Mediterranean

Sea and the Sahara Desert are berbers an ancient stock racially European rather than Asiatic or negroid and closely aen to the Latin peoples across the Mediterranean the berbers remind one of the Balkan albanians they are extremely tenacious of their language and customs and they have an instinctive racial feeling but they are inveterate

Particularists having always been split up into many tribes sometimes combining into to partial confederations but never developing true National patriotism 153 alongside the berbers we find everywhere a varying proportion of Arabs the Arabs have colonized North Africa ever since the Muslim Conquest 12 centuries ago they converted the berbers

To Islam and Arab culture but they never made North Africa part of the Arab world as they did Syria and Mesopotamia and in somewhat lesser degree Egypt the two races have never really used despite more than a thousand years of Arab tutelage the Berber manner of Life remains distinct they have largely kept

Their language and there has been comparatively little intermarriage pure-blooded Arabs abound often in large tribal groups but they are still in a way foreigners 154 with such elements of Discord North Africa’s political life has always been troubled the most stable region has been Morocco though even there the Sultan’s Authority

Has never really extended to the mountain tribes as for the so-called barbar States alers Tunis and Tripoli they were little more than port cities along the coast the hinterland enjoying practically complete tribal Independence over this confused turmoil spread the tide of French Conquest beginning with alers in

1,830 and ending with Morocco today 155 France brought peace order and and material Prosperity but here as in other Eastern lands these very benefits of European tutelage created a new sort of unity among the natives in their common dislike of the European conqueror and their common aspiration toward Independence accordingly the past

Generation has witnessed the appearance of young Algerian and young Tunisian political groups led by French educated men who have Ed Western ideas of self-government and Liberty 156 however as we have already remarked their goal is not so much the erection of distinct Algerian and Tunisian Nations as it is

Creation of a larger North African perhaps pan-islamic Unity it must not be forgotten that they are in close touch with the Cy and Kindred influences which we have already examined in the chapter on pan islamism so much for first stage nationalist developments in the Arab or arabized lands there is however one more

Important Center of nationalist sentiment in the Muslim world to be considered Persia Persia is in fact the land where a genuine nationalist movement would have been most logically expected because the Persians have for ages possessed a stronger feeling of country than any other near Eastern people in the 19th century Persia had

Sunk into such deep decrepitude that its patent weakness excited the imperialistic appetites of zaris Russia and in somewhat lesser degree of England Persia decadence and external perils were however appreciated by thinking Persians and a series of reformist agitations took place beginning with the religious movement of

The bab early in the 19th century and culminating with the revolution of 19081 157 that Revolution was largely precipitated by the anglo-russian agreement of 1907 by which England and Russia virtually partitioned Persia the country being divided into a Russian sphere of influence in the north and a British

Sphere of influence in the South with a neutral zone between the Revolution was thus in great part A desperate attempt of the Persian Patriots to set their house in order and avert at the 11th Hour the shadow of European domination which was creeping over the land but the

Revolution was not merely a protest against European aggression it was also aimed at the alien kajar Dynasty which had so long misruled Persia these kajar sovereigns were of tur origin they had never become really persianized as shown by the fact that the intimate Court language was Turkey not Persian they occupied a position

Somewhat analogous to that of the mancho before the Chinese Revolution the Persian Revolution was thus basically an Iranian patriotic Outburst against all alien influences whether from east or west we have already seen how this patriotic movement was crushed by the forceable intervention of European imperialism 158 by 1912 Russia and England were in

Full control of the situation the Patriots were proscribed and persecuted and Persia sank into despairing silence as a British writer then remarked for such broken spirit and shattered hopes as for the Anarchy now existing in Persia Russia and Great Britain are directly responsible and if there be a

Reckoning will one day be held to account it is Idle to talk of any Improvement in the situation when the only government in Persia consists of a cabinet which does not command the confidence of the people terrorized by Russia financially starved by both Russia and England allowed only

Miserable dos of money on usurious terms and forbidden to employ honest and efficient foreign experts like Mr Schuster when the king is a boy the Regent an absentee the parliament permanently suspended and the best bravest and most honest Patriots either killed or driven into Exile while the wolf pack of finers concession hunters

And land Grabbers presses ever harder on the exhausted victim whose struggles grow fainter and fainter little less than a miracle can now save Persia 159 so ends our survey of the main first stage nationalist movements in the Muslim world we should of course remember that a nationalist movement was

Developing concurrently in India albeit following an eccentric orbit of its own we should also remember that in addition to the main movements just discussed there were minor nationalist stirrings among other moslim peoples such as the Russian tartar the Chinese muhammadans and even the Japanese of the Dutch Indies lastly we should remember that

These nationalist movements were more or less interwoven with the non-national movement of pan islamism and with those second stage racial nationalist movements which we shall now consider two earlier in this chapter we have already remarked that the opening years of the 20th century witnessed the appearance in Asia of nationalism second

Or racial stage especially among the Turkish and Arab peoples this wider stage of nationalism has attained its highest development among the Turks where indeed it has gone through two distinct phases describable respectively by the terms pan turkism and paninis we have described the primary phase of Turkish nationalism in its

Restricted ottoman sense down to the close of the Balan Wars of 1912 to13 it is at that time that the secondary or racial aspects of Turkish nationalism first come prominently to the four by this time the ottoman Turks had begun to realize that they did not

Stand alone in the world that they were in fact the westernmost branch of a vast band of peoples extending right across Eastern Europe and Asia from the Baltic to the Pacific and from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Ocean to whom ethn ologists have assigned the

Name of uro altaic race but who are more generally termed turanians this group Embraces the most widely scattered folk the ottoman Turks of Constantinople and Anatolia the turkomans of Persia and Central Asia the tartar of South Russia and transcaucasia the magars of Hungary the fins of Finland and the Baltic provinces the

Aboriginal tribes of Siberia and even the distant Mongols and Manus diverse though they are in culture tradition and even personal appearance these people nevertheless possess certain well-marked traits in common their languages are all similar while their physical and mental makeup displays undoubted affinities they are all noted for great physical Vitality

Combined with unusual toughness of nerve fiber though somewhat deficient in imagination and creative artistic sense they are richly endowed with patience tenacity and dogged energy above all they have usually played extraordinary military capacity together with a no less remarkable aptitude for the masterful handling of subject peoples the turanians have certainly been the

Greatest conquerors that the world has ever seen Adela and his Huns arid and his magars isper and his bulgars Alp Aran and his seljuks eragal and his Ottomans yisan and tamarlane with their inflexible Mongol hordes babber in India even kakan and nichu in far off Cafe the

Type is ever the same the hoofprint of the tanian man on Horseback is stamped deep all over the palimpsest of History glorious or Sinister according to the point of view to runs is certainly a stirring past of course one may query whether these diverse peoples actually

Do form one genuine race but as we have already seen so far as practical politics go that makes no difference possessed of Kindred tongues and temperaments endowed with such a wealth of Soul stirring tradition it would suffice for them to think themselves racially one to form a nationalist

Dynamic of truly appalling potency until about a generation ago to be sure no signs of such a movement were visible not only were distant stocks like fins and manw quite unaware of any common tanan Bond but even obvious Kindred like ottoman Turks and Central Asian turkomans regarded one another with indifference or contempt

Certainly the ottoman Turks were almost as devoid of racial as they were of national feeling armenius vur tells how when he first visited Constantinople in 1,856 the word Turk look I.E Turk was considered an appropriate synonym of grossness and savagery and when I used to call people’s attention to the racial

Importance of the Turkish stock stretching from Adrian opal to the Pacific they answered but you are surely not not classing us with kges and with the gross Nomads of Tarter with a few exceptions I found no one in Constantinople who was seriously interested in the questions of Turkish nationality or

Language 160 it was in fact the labors of Western ethnologists like the Hungarian vur and the Frenchman Leon Kon that first cleared away the Miss switch and shrouded Turin these labors disclosed the unexpected vastness of the tanian world and this presently acquired a most unacademic significance the writings of vur and his

Colleagues spread far and wide through tun and were there devoured by receptive Minds already stirring to the Obscure promptings of a new time the normality of the tanian movement is shown by its simultaneous appearance at such widely sundered points as Turkish Constantinople and the tartar centers along the Russian vulga indeed if

Anything the Len began its working on the VGA sooner than on the Boston us this tarar revival though little known is one of the most extraordinary phenomena in all nationalist history the tartars once masters of Russia though long since fallen from their High estate have never vanished in the slav ocean

Although many of them have been for four centuries under Russian rule they have stubbornly maintained their religious racial and cultural identity clustered thickly along the VGA especially at Kazan and asrian can retaining much of the Crimea and forming a considerable minority in transcaucasia the tartar remained distinct enclaves in the slav

Empire widely scattered but indomitable the first stirrings of nationalist self-consciousness among the Russian Tarter appeared as far back as 1,895 and from then on the movement grew with astonishing rapidity the removal of governmental restrictions at the time of the Russian Revolution of 1904 was followed by regular literary fluorescence streams of books and

Pamphlets numerous newspapers and a solid periodical press all attested the Vigor and facundity of the tartar Revival the high economic level of the Russian tartars assured the material sinus of war the tartar oil millionaires of Baku here played a conspicuous role freely opening their capacious purses

For the good of the cause the Russian tartars also showed distinct political ability and soon gained the confidence of their turkman cousins of Russian Central Asia who were also stirring to the breath of nationalism the first Russian Duma contained a large mohammadan group so enterprising in spirit and so skillfully

LED that Russian public opinion became genuinely uneasy and encouraged the government to diminish Charter influence in Russian parliamentary Life by summary curtailments of muhammadan representation 161 of course the Russian muhammadans were careful to Proclaim their political loyalty to the Russian Empire nevertheless many Earnest Spirits revealed their secret aspirations by

Seeking a Freer and more fruitful field of Labor in Turkish stambul where the Russian tartars played a prominent part in the pan Turk and pananian movements within the Ottoman Empire in fact it was a VGA tartar YF Bay akura U who was the real founder of the first pananian

Society at Constantinople and his well-known book three political systems became the text on which most subsequent pananian writings have been based 162 down to the Young Turk revolution of 1908 pism was somewhat under a cloud at stambul Sultan Abdul Hamid as already remarked was a pen islamist and had a

Rooted aversion to all nationalist movements accordingly the pananian while not actually persecuted were never in the Sultan’s favor with the Advent of Young Turk nationalism to power however all was changed the ottoman ising leaders of the new government listened eagerly to pananian preaching and most of them became affiliated with the

Movement it is interesting to note that Russian tartar continued to play a prominent part the chief pananian propagandist was the able publicist Ahmed bayf a VGA Tarter his well-edited organ Turk uru Turkish home penetrated to every corner of the turot tartar world and exercised great influence on the development of its public opinion

Although leaders like Ahmed bayf clearly visualized the entire tanian world from Finland to Manchuria as a potential whole and were thus full-fledged pananian their practical efforts were at first confined to the closely related turot tartar segment that is to the Ottomans of turkey the tartars of Russia

And the turkomans of Central Asia and Persia since all these peoples were also muhammadans it follows that this propaganda had a religious as well as a racial complexion trending in many respects toward pan islamism indeed even disregarding the religious Factor we may say that though pananian in theory the movement was at

That time in practice little more than pan turkism it was the Balkan Wars of 1912 to13 which really precipitated full-fledged paninis those Wars not merely expelled the Turks from the Balkans and turned their eyes increasingly toward Asia but also roused such hatred of the victorious serbs in the breasts of

Hungarians and bulgarians that both these peoples proclaimed their tanian Origins and toyed with ideas of pananian solidarity against the Menace of serbo Russian panslavism 163 the pananian thinkers were assuredly evolving a body of Doctrine grandiose enough to satisfy the most ambitious hopes emphasizing the great virility and nerve Force everywhere patent in the

Tanan stocks these thinkers saw into to run the dominant race of the morrow zealous students of Western evolutionism and ethnology they were evolving their own special theory of race Grandeur and decadence according to pananian teaching the historic peoples of southern Asia Arabs Persians and Hindus are hopelessly degenerate as for the Europeans they

Have recently passed their apogee and exhausted by the consuming fires of modern industrialism are already entering upon their decline it is the turanians with their inherent virility and steady nerves unspoiled by the wear and tear of Western Civilization who must be the great Dynamic of the future

Indeed some pananian thinkers go so far as to Proclaim that it is the sacred mission of their race to revitalize a whole ccent Worn Out World by the saving infusion of regenerative tanian blood 164 of course the pananian recognized that anything like a real ization of their ambitious dreams was dependent

Upon the virtual destruction of the Russian Empire in fact Russia with its tartar turkomans kges fins and numerous Kindred tribes was in pananian eyes merely a slav alivium laid with varying thickness over a tanian subsoil this turning of Russia into a vast trania ER enta was certainly an ambitious order nevertheless the

Pananian counted on powerful Western backing they realized that Germany and Austria Hungary were fast drifting toward war with Russia and they felt that such a cataclysm however peralis would also offer most glorious possibilities these pananian aspirations undoubtedly had a great deal to do with driving turkey into the Great War on the

Side of the central Empires certainly anir Pasha and most of the other leaders of the governing group had long been more or less affiliated with the pananian movement of course the tur ish government had more than one string to its Bell it tried to drive paninis and pan islamism in double

Harness using the holy war agitation for Pious Muslims everywhere while it redoubled pananian propaganda among the turot Tarter peoples a good statement of pananian Ambitions in the early years of the war is that of the publicist Tekken Alp in his book The Turkish and pan Turkish ideal published in

1915 says Tekken Alp with the crushing of Russian despotism by the brave German Austrian and Turkish armies 30 million to 40 million turanians will receive their independence with the 10 million ottoman Turks this will form a nation of 50 million advancing toward a great civilization which may perhaps be

Compared with that of Germany in that it will have the strength and energy to rise even higher in some ways it will be superior to the degenerate French and English civilizations with the collapse of Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution at the end of 1917 pananian hopes knew no bounds so

Certain were they of Triumph that they began to flout even their German allies thus revealing that hatred of all Europeans which had always lurked at the back of their minds a German staff officer thus describes the table talk of Halo Pasha the Turkish commander of the Mesopotamian front and Uncle of En first

Of all every tribe with a Turkish mother tongue must be forged into a single the national principle was Supreme so it was the design to conquer turkistan the Cradle of Turkish power and Glory that was the first task from that base connections must be established with the

Auts of Siberia who were considered on account of their linguistic kinship the remotest outposts of the Turkish blood to the Eastward the closely related tartar tribes of the Caucasus must naturally join this Union Armenians and Georgians who form minority nationalities in that territory must either submit voluntarily or be

Subjugated such a great compact Turkish Empire exercising hemony over all the Islamic world would exert a powerful attraction upon Afghanistan and Persia in December 1917 when the Turkish front in Mesopotamia threatened to yield Halo pasia said to me half vexed half jokingly supposing we let the English

Have this Cur csed desert hole and go to turkistan where I will erect a new Empire for my little boy he had named his youngest son after the great conqueror and Destroyer Yi Khan 165 as a matter of fact the summer of 1918 saw trans caucasia and Northern

Persia overrun by Turkish armies headed for Central Asia then came the German collapse in the west and the end of the war apparently dooming turkey to Destruction for the moment the pant Iranians were stunned nevertheless their hopes were soon destined to revive as we shall presently see before describing

The course of events in the near East since 1918 which need to be treated as a unit let us go back to consider the earlier developments of the other second stage nationalist movements in the Muslim world we have already seen how concurrently with Turkish nationalism Arab nationalism was likewise evolving

Into the racial state the ideal being a great pan Arab Empire embracing not merely the ethnically Arab peninsula Homeland Syria and Mesopotamia but also the arabized regions of Egypt Tripoli French North Africa and the Sudan pan arabism has not been as intellectually developed as paninis though its General trend is so similar

That its doctrines need not be discussed in detail one important difference between the two movements is that pan arabism is much more religious and pan-islamic in character the Arabs regarding themselves as the chosen people divinely predestined to dominate the whole Islamic World pan arabism also lacks paninis M’s Unity of Direction

There have been two distinct intellectual centers Syria and Egypt in fact it is in Egypt that pan Arab schemes have been most concretely elaborated the Egyptian program looking toward a reunion of the arab-speaking lands under the Kad perhaps at first subject to British t though ultimately throwing off British

Control by concerted pan Arab action the late Kad abass Hill me deposed by the British in 1914 is supposed to have encouraged this movement 166 the Great War undoubtedly stimulated pan arabism especially by its creation of an independent Arab Kingdom in the hij Jaz with claims on Syria and

Mesopotamia however the various Arab peoples are so engrossed with local Independence at itations looking toward the elimination of British French and Italian control from specific regions like Egypt Syria Mesopotamia and Tripoli that the larger concept of pan arabism while undoubtedly an underlying factor is not today in the foreground of Arab nationalist

Programs furthermore as I have already said pan arabism is interwoven with the non-racial concepts of pan-islamism and pan Islamic nationalism this latter concept concept may seem a rather grotesque contradiction of terms so it may be to us westerners but it is not necessarily so to Eastern Minds however eagerly the East may have

Seized Upon Our ideas of nationality and patriotism those ideas have entered Minds already full of Concepts like Islamic solidarity and the Brotherhood of all True Believers the result has been a subtle coloration of the new by the old so that even when Muslims use our exact words nationality race Etc

Their conception of what those words mean is distinctly different from ours these differences in fact extend to all political Concepts take the word state for example the typical Muhammad and state is not like the typical Western State a sharply defined unit with fixed boundaries and full sovereignty exercised everywhere within its

Frontiers it is more or less an amorphous Mass with a central nuclear the seat of an authority which Shades off into ill-defined anarchic independence of course in the past half century Most muhammadan states have tried to remodel themselves on Western lines but the traditional tendency is typified by Afghanistan where the tribes

Of the Indian Northwest Frontier though nominally Afghan enjoy practical Independence and have frequently conducted private Wars of their own against the British which the Amir has disavowed and for which the British have not held him responsible similarly with the term nationality in Muslim eyes a man need

Not be born or formally naturalized to be a member of a certain Muslim nationality every Muslim is more or less at home in every part of Islam so a man may just happen into a particular country and thereby become at once if he wishes a national in good standing for

Example Egypt for the Egyptians does not mean precisely what we think let a mohammadan of alers or Damascus settle in Cairo nothing prevents him from acting and being considered as an Egyptian nationalist in the full sense of the term this is because Islam has always had a distinct idea of

Territorial as well as spiritual unity all predominantly muhammadan lands are believed by Muslims to constitute Dr alislam 1067 which is in a sense The Joint possession of all Muslims and which all Muslims are jointly obligated to defend that is the reason why alien encroachments on any Muslim land are

Instantly resented by Muslims at the opposite end of the Muslim world who could have no possible material interest in the matter we are now better able to understand how many Muslim thinkers combining the Western concept of nationality with the traditional idea of Dr alislam have evolved a new synthesis

Of the two expressed by the term pan Islamic nationalism this trend of thought is well set forth by an Indian Muslim who writes in the west the whole science of government rests on the Axiom that the essential divisions of humanity are determined by considerations of race and geography but for orientals these ideas

Are very far from being axioms for them Humanity divides according to religious beliefs the unity is no longer the nation or the state but the Miller 168 Europeans see in this a counterpart to their middle ages a stage which Islam should pass through on its way to modernity in the western sense

How badly they understand how religion looks to a muhammadan they forget that Islam is not only a religion but also a social organization a form of culture and a nationality the principle of Islamic fraternity of pan islamism if you prefer the word is analogous to patriotism but with this difference this Islamic

Fraternity though resulting in identity of laws and Customs has not like Western nationality been brought about by community of race country or history but has been received as we believe directly from God 169 penis lamic nationalism is a relatively recent phenomenon and has not been doctrinally worked out nevertheless

It is visible throughout the Muslim world and is gaining in strength particularly in regions like North Africa and India where strong territorial patriotism has for one reason or another not developed as a French writer remarks muhammadan nationalism is not an isolated or sporadic agitation it is a broad tide which is

Flowing over the whole Islamic world of Asia India and Africa nationalism is a new form of the muhammadan faith which far from being undermined by contact with European civilization seems to have discovered a surplus of religious and which in its desire for expansion and prism tends to realize its Unity by

Rousing the fanaticism of the masses by directing the political Tendencies of the elites and by sewing everywhere the seeds of a dangerous agitation 170 pan Islamic nationalism May thus in the future become a major factor which will have to be seriously reckoned with 171 three so ends our survey of

Nationalist movements in the Muslim World given such a tangled complex of aspirations enormously stimulated by Armageddon it was only natural that the close of the Great War should have left the Orient a veritable Welter of unrest obviously anything like a constructive settlement could have been affected only by the exercise of true

Statesmanship of the highest order unfortunately the Versa peace conference was devoid of true statesmanship and the resulting settlement not only failed failed to give peace to Europe but disclosed an attitude toward the East inspired by the pre-war Spirit of predatory imperialism and cynical real politi apparently oblivious of the

Mighty psychological changes which the war had wrought and of the consequent changes of attitude and policy required the Victorious allies proceeded to treat the Orient as though Armageddon were a skirmish and Asia the sleeping giant of a century ago in fact disregarding both the general pronouncements of liberal

Principles and the specific Promises of self-determination for NE Eastern peoples which they had made during the war the Allies now paraded a series of secret treaties negotiated between themselves during those same War years when they had been so unctuously orating and these secret treaties clearly divided up the Ottoman Empire among the

Victors in absolute disregard of The Wishes of the inhabitants the purposes of the Allies were further revealed by the way in which the Versa conference refused to receive the representatives of Persia theoretically still independent but kept them cooling their heels in Paris while British pressure at Taran forced the

Sha’s government to enter into an agreement that made Persia a virtual protectorate of the British Empire as for the Egyptians who had always protested against the protectorate proclaimed by England solely on its own initiative in 1914 the conference refused to pay any attention to their delegates and they were given to

Understand that the conference regarded the British protectorate over Egypt as a fate comply the upshot was that as a result of the war European domination over the near and Middle East was riveted rather than relaxed but the strangest feature of this strange business remains to be told one might imagine that the Allied

Leaders would have realized that they were playing a dangerous game which could succeed only by Clos teamwork and quick action as a matter of fact the very reverse was the case after showing their hand and thereby filling the East with disillusionment Despair and fury the Allies proceeded to quarrel over the

Spoils nearly 2 years passed before England France and Italy were able to come to an even superficial agreement as to the partition of the Ottoman Empire and meanwhile they had been bickering and intriguing against each other all over the near East this was sheer Madness the destined victims were thereby informed that European

Domination rested not only on disregard of the moral imponderables but on diplomatic bankruptcy as well the obvious reflection was that a domination resting on such rotten foundations might well be overthrown that at any rate is the way multitudes of orientals read the situation and their rebellious feelings were stimulated not merely by

Consciousness of Their Own Strength and Western disunion but also by the active encouragement of a new ally Bolshevik Russia Russian bolshevism had thrown down the gauntlet to Western civilization and in the the desperate struggle which was now on the Bolshevik leaders saw with terrible Glee the golden opportunities vouch saved them in

The East the details of Bolshevik activity in the orient will be considered in the chapter on social unrest suffice it to remember here that Bolshevik propaganda is an important element in that profound ferment which extends over the whole near and Middle East a ferment which has reduced some

Regions to the verge of chaos and which threatens to increase rather than diminish in the immediate future to relate all the details of contemporary Eastern unrest would fill a book in itself let us here content ourselves with considering the chief centers of this unrest remembering always that it

Exists throughout the Muslim World from French North Africa to Central Asia and the Dutch Indies the centers to be here surveyed will be Egypt Persia and the Turkish and Arab regions of the former Ottoman Empire a fifth main Center of unrest India will be discussed in the next chapter the Gathering storm first

Broke in Egypt during the war Egypt flooded with British troops and subjected to the most stringent martial law had remained quiet but it was the quiet of repression not of passivity we have seen how with the opening years of the 20th century virtually all educated Egyptians had become more or less

Impregnated with nationalist ideas albeit a large proportion of them believed in evolutionary rather than revolutionary methods the chief hope of the modern had been the provisional character of English rule so long as England declared herself merely in temporary occupation of Egypt anything was possible but the proclamation of the protectorate in

1914 which declared Egypt part of the British Empire entirely changed the situation even the most moderate nationalists felt that the future was definitely prejudged against them and that the door had been irrevocably closed upon their ultimate aspirations the result was that the moderates were driven over to the

Extremists and were ready to join the latter in violent action as soon as opportunity might offer the extreme nationalists had of course protested bitterly against the protectorate from the first and the close of the war saw a delegation composed of both nationalist Wings proceed to Paris to lay their

Claims before the Versa conference rebuffed by the conference which recognized the British protectorate over Egypt as part of the peace settlement the Egyptian delegation issued a formal protest warning of trouble this protest read we have knocked at door after door but have received no answer in spite of

The definite pledges given by the Statesmen at the head of the Nations which won the war to the effect that their Victory would mean the Triumph of right over might and the establishment of the principle of self-determination for small Nations the British protectorate over Egypt was written into

The treaties of Versa and St Germaine without the people of Egypt being consulted as to their political stat status this crime against our nation a breach of good faith on the part of the powers who have declared that they are forming in the same treaty a society of

Nations will not be consummated without a solemn warning that the people of Egypt consider the decision taken at Paris null and void if our voice is not heard it will be only because the blood already shed has not been enough to overthrow the old world order and give

Birth to a New World Order 172 before these lines had appeared in type trouble in Egypt had begun simultaneously with the arrival of the Egyptian delegation at Paris the nationalists in Egypt laid their demands before the British authorities the Nationalist program demanded complete self-government for Egypt leaving England only a right of

Supervision over the public debt and the Su Canal the Nationalist strength was shown by the fact that these proposals were endorsed by the Egyptian cabinet recently appointed by the Kad at British suggestion in fact the Egyptian Premier rajd Pasha asked to be allowed to go to London with

Some of his colleagues for a hearing this placed the British authorities in Egypt in a distinctly trying position however they determined to stand firm and accordingly answered that England could not abandon its responsibility for the continuance of order and good government in Egypt now a British protectorate and an integral

Part of the Empire and that no useful purpose would be served by by allowing the Egyptian leaders to go to London and their Advance immoderate demands which could not possibly be entertained the English attitude was firm the Egyptian attitude was no less firm the cabinet at once resigned no new

Cabinet could be formed and the British High Commissioner General alanb was forced to assume unveiled control meanwhile the nationalists announced that they were going to hold a pleb asite to determine the attitude of the Egyptian people for forbidden by the British authorities the pite was nevertheless illegally held and resulted

According to the nationalists in an overwhelming popular endorsement of their demands this defiant attitude determined the British on strong action accordingly in the spring of 1919 most of the Nationalist leaders were seized and deported to Malta Egypt’s answer was an explosion from one end of the country to the other Egypt

Flamed into re reion everywhere it was the same story Railways and Telegraph lines were systematically cut trains were stalled and looted isolated British officers and soldiers were murdered in Cairo alone thousands of houses were sacked by the mob soon the danger was rendered more acute by the eruption out

Of the desert of swarms of bedwin Arabs bent on plunder for a few days Egypt trembled on the verge of Anarchy and the British government admitted in Parliament that all Egypt was in a state of insurrection the British authorities met the crisis with Vigor and determination the number of British

Troops in Egypt was large trusty black regiments were hurried up from the Sudan and the well-disciplined Egyptian native police generally obeyed orders after several weeks of sharp fighting and heavy loss of life Egypt was again gotten under control order was restored but the Outlook was ominous in the

Extreme only the presence of massed British and Sudanese troops enabled order to be maintained even the application of stern martial law could not prevent continuous nationalist demonstrations sometimes ending in riots fighting and heavy loss of life the most serious aspect of the situation was that not only were the upper classes solidly

Nationalist but they had behind them the hitherto passive fellow Millions the Warriors had borne hard on the Fahim military exigencies had compelled Britain to conscript fully a million of them for forced labor in the near East and even in Europe while there had also been wholesale requisitions of grain fod and other

Supplies these things had caused profound discontent and had roused among the Fellah not merely passive dislike but active hatred of British rule authoritative English experts on Egypt were seriously alarmed shortly after the riots Sir William Willcox the noted engineer said in a public statement the Keystone of the British occupation of

Egypt was the fact that the fahin were for it the shiks AMD governing classes and high religious heads might or might not be hostile but nothing counted for much while the millions of fahin were solid for the occupation the British have undoubtedly today lost the friendship and confidence

Of the Fahim and Sir Valentine kyol stated in the London times we are now admittedly face Toof face with the ominous fact that for the first time since the British occupation large numbers of the Egyptian faheen who owe far more to us than does any other class

Of Egyptians have been worked up into a fever of bitter discontent and hatred very few people at home even in responsible quarters have I think the slightest conception of the very dangerous degree of tension which has now been reached out here all foreign observers were impressed by the Nationalist feeling which United all

Creeds and classes regarding the monster demon strations held during the summer of 1919 an Italian publicist wrote for the first time in history the banners flan showed the Crescent interwoven with the cross until a short time ago the two elements were as distinct from each

Other as each of them was from the Jews today precisely as has happened in India among the musulmans and the Hindus every trace of religious division has departed all Egyptians are enrolled under a single banner everyone beh behind his mask of Silence Is Burning with the same

Faith and confident that his cause will ultimately Triumph 173 and a French woman a lifelong resident of Egypt wrote we have seen surprising things in this country so often divided by party and religious struggles Coptic priests preaching in mosques ulamas preaching in Christian churches Syrian marinite or mohamedan

Students women whether of Turkish or Egyptian blood United in the same fervor the same Ardent desire to see break over their ancient land the radiant Dawn of Independence for those who like myself have known the Egypt of toek the attitude of the women these last few years is the most surprising

Transformation that has happened in the Valley of the Nile one should have seen the nonchalant life the almost complete indifference to anything savoring of politics to appreciate the enormous steps taken in the last few months for example last summer A procession of women demonstrators was surrounded by British soldiers with fixed bayonets one

Of the women threatened by a soldier turned on him bearing her breast and cried kill me then so that there may be another miscel 174 faced by this unprecedented nationalist feror Englishmen on the spot were of two opinions some like Sir William Will Cox and Sir Valentine cyol stated that

Extensive concessions must be made 175 other qualified observers asserted that concessions would be weakness and would spell disaster said sir M mckill Ruth 5 years of a nationalist regime would lead to hopeless chaos and disorder if Egypt is not to fall back into the moras of bankruptcy and Anarchy

From which We rescued her in 1,882 with the still greater horrors of bism of which there are already Sinister indications suad Britain must not loosen her control 176 in England the Egyptian situation caused grave disquietude and in the summer of 1919 the British government announced the appointment of a

Commission of inquiry headed by Lord Milner to investigate fully into Egyptian Affairs the appointment was a wise one Lord Milner was one of the ablest figures in British political life a man of long experience with Imperial problems including that of Egypt and possessed of a temperament equally remote from the doctrinaire liberal or

The hidebound conservative in short Lord Milner was a realist in the true sense of the word as his action soon proved arriving in Egypt at the beginning of 1920 Lord Milner and his colleagues found themselves confronted with a most difficult situation in Egypt the word had gone

Forth to boycott the commission and not merely nationalist politicians but also religious leaders like the grand Muffy refused even to discuss matters unless the Commissioners would first agree to Egyptian independence this looked like a deadlock nevertheless by infinite tact and patience Lord Milner finally got into free and Frank discussion with Zag lul

Pasha and the other responsible nationalist leaders his efforts were undoubtedly helped by certain developments within Egypt itself in Egypt as elsewhere in the east there were appearing symptoms not merely of political but also of social unrest new types of agitators were springing up preaching to the populace the most extreme revolutionary

Doctrines these youthful agitators disquieted the regular nationalist leaders who felt themselves threatened both as party Chiefs and as men of social standing and property the upshot was that by the Autumn of 1920 Lord Milner and zag Lil pasia had agreed upon the basis of what looked like a genuine

Compromise according to the intimations then given out to the press and later confirmed by the nature of Lord Milner’s official report the lines of the tentative agreement ran as follows England was to withdraw her protectorate and was to declare Egypt independent this Independence was qualified to about the same extent that

Cuba’s is toward the United States Egypt was to have complete self-government both the British Garrison and British civilian officials being withdrawn Egypt was however to make a Perpetual Treaty of alliance with Great Britain was to agree not to make treaties with other power save with Britain’s consent and

Was to Grant Britain a military and naval station for the protection of the Su canal and of Egypt itself in case of sudden attack by foreign enemies the vexed question of the Sudan was left temporarily open these proposals bore the earmarks of genuinely constructive compromise Unfortunately they were not at once acted upon

177 both in England and in Egypt they roused strong opposition in England adverse official influences held up the commission’s report till February 1921 in Egypt the extreme nationalists denounced zag L Pasha as a traitor though moderate opinion seemed substantially satisfied the commission’s report as finally published declared that the

Grant of self-government to Egypt could not be safely postponed that the Nationalist Spirit could not be extinguished that an attempt to govern Egypt in the teeth of a hostile people would be a difficult and disgraceful task and that it would be a great Misfortune if the present opportunity for a settlement were

Lost however the report was not endorsed by the British government in its entirety and Lord Milner forth with resigned as for zaglul Pasha he still maintains his position as nationalist leader but his authority has been Gravely shaken such is the situation of Egypt at this present writing a

Situation frankly not so encouraging as it was last year meanwhile the storm which had begun in Egypt had long since spread to other parts of the near East in fact by the opening months of 1920 the Storm Center had shifted to the Ottoman Empire for this the Allies

Themselves were largely to blame of course a constructive settlement of these troubled regions would have been very difficult still still it might not have proved impossible if Allied policy had been fair and above board the close of the war found the various peoples of the Ottoman Empire hopeful that the

Liberal War aims professed by the Allied spokesman would be redeemed the Arab elements were notably hopeful because they had been given a whole series of Allied promises shortly to be repudiated as we shall presently see while even the beaten Turks were not entirely BPT of Hope in the future besides the general

Pronounce ments of liberal treatment as formulated in the 14 points program of President Wilson and endorsed by the Allies the Turks had pledges of a more specific character notably by Premier Lloyd George Who on January 5th 1918 had said nor are we fighting to deprive

Turkey of its capital or of the Rich and renowned lands of Asia Minor and th which are predominantly Turkish in race in other words the Turks were given unequivocally to understand that while their rule over non-turkish regions like the Arab provinces must cease the Turkish regions of the empire were not

To pass under alien rule but were to form a Turkish national state the Turks did not know about a series of secret treaties between the Allies begun in 1915 which partitioned practically the whole of Asia Minor between the Allied Powers these were to come out a little

Later for the moment the Turks might hope in the case of the Arabs there were far brighter grounds for nationalist hopes and far darker depths of Allied duplicity we have already mentioned the Arab Revolt of 1916 which beginning in the hij Jaz under the leadership of the Sharif of

Mecca presently spread through all the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire and contributed so largely to the collapse of Turkish resistance this Revolt was however not a sudden unpremeditated thing it had been carefully planned and was due largely to Allied backing and Allied promises from the very beginning of the war Arab

Nationalist malcontents had been in touch with the British authorities in Egypt they were warmly welcomed and encouraged in their separatist schemes because an Arab Rebellion would obviously be of invaluable assistance to the British in safeguarding Egypt and the suas canal to say nothing of an advance into Turkish

Territory the Arabs however asked not merely material aid but also definite promises that their rebell Reon should be rewarded by the formation of an Arab State embracing the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire unfortunately for Arab nationalist aspirations the British and French governments had their own

Ideas as to the future of turkey’s Arab provinces both England and France had long possessed spheres of influence in those regions the English sphere was in southern Mesopotamia at the head of the Persian Gulf the French sphere was the Lebanon a mountainous District in Northern syri just Inland from the

Mediterranean Coast where the population known as maronites were Roman Catholics over whom France had long extended her diplomatic protection of course both these districts were legally Turkish territory also both were small in area but spheres of influence are elastic things under favorable circumstances they are capable of sudden expansion to

An extraordinary degree such a circumstance was the Great War accordingly the British and French foreign offices put their heads together and on March 5th 1915 the two governments signed a secret treaty by the terms of which France was given a predominant position in Syria and Britain a predominant position in

Mesopotamia no definite boundaries were then assigned but the intent was to stake out claims which would partition turkey’s Arab provinces between England and France naturally the existence of this secret treaty was an embarrassment to the British officials in Egypt in their negotiations with the Arabs however an Arab rebellion was too

Valuable an asset to be lost and the British negotiators finally evolved a formula which satisfied the Arab leaders on October 25th 1915 the Sharie of Mecca’s representative at Cairo was given a document by the governor general of Egypt Sir Henry McMahon in which Great Britain undertook conditional upon

An Arab Revolt to recogn Iz the independence of the Arabs of the Ottoman Empire except in southern Mesopotamia where British interests required special measures of administrative control and also accept areas where Great Britain was not free to act without detriment to the interests of France this last Clause was of course a

Joker however it achieved its purpose the Arabs knowing nothing about the secret treaty supposed it referred merely to the restricted District of the Lebanon they went home jubilant to prepare the Revolt which broke out next year the Revolt began in November 1916 it might not have begun at all had

The Arabs known what had happened the preceding May in that month England and France signed another secret treaty the celebrated syes Pico agreement this agreement definitely partitioned turkey’s Arab provinces along the line suggested in the initial secret treaty of the year before by the syes Pico agreement most of Mesopotamia was to be

Definitely British while the Syrian Coast from TY to alexandrea was to be definitely French together with extensive Armenian and Asia Minor regions to the northward Palestine was to be International albeit its Chief Seaport hia was to be British and the implication was that Palestine fell within the English sphere as to the

Great hinderland lying between Mesopotamia and the Syrian Coast it was to be independent Arab under two spheres of influence British and French the French sphere embracing all the rest of Syria from Aleppo to Damascus the English sphere embracing all the rest of Mesopotamia the region about mosul in other words the independence promised

The Arabs by Sir Henry McMahon had vanished Into Thin Air this little shift behind the scenes was of course not communicated to the Arabs on the contrary the British did everything possible to stimulate Arab nationalist hopes this being the best way to extract their fighting Zeal against the Turks

The British government sent the Arabs a number of picked Intelligence Officers notably a certain Colonel Lawrence an extraordinary young man who soon gained unbounded influence over the Arab Chiefs and became known as the soul of the Arabian Revolution 178 these men chosen for their knowledge of and Sympathy for the Arabs were not

Informed about the secret treaties so that their encouragement of Arab Zeal might not be marred by any lack of sincerity similarly the British generals were prodigal of promises in their proclamations 179 the climax of this blessed comedy occurred at the very close of the war when the British and French governments

Issued the following joint declaration which was posted throughout the Arab provinces the aim which France and Great Britain have in view in waging in the East the war let loose upon the World by German ambition is to ensure the complete and final emancipation of all those peoples so long oppressed by Turks

And to establish National governments and administrations which shall derive their Authority from the initiative and Free Will of the people themselves this climax was however followed by a swift Duma the war was over the enemy was beaten the comedy was ended the curtain was rung down and on that curtain the

Arabs read the inner truth of things French troops appeared to occupy the Ian Coast the secret treaties came out and the Arabs learned how they had been tricked black and bitter was their wrath probably they would have exploded at once had it not been for their cool-headed Chiefs especially Prince Fel

The son of the sharief of Mecca who had proved himself a real leader of men during the War and who had now attained a position of unquestioned authority Fel knew the Allies military strength and realized how hazardous War would be especially at that time feeling the moral strength of the Arab

Position he besought his countrymen to let him plead Arabia’s cause before the impending peace conference and he had his way during the year 1919 the Arab lands were quiet though it was the quiet of suspense Prince fisel pleaded his case before the peace conference with eloquence and dignity but fisel failed

The Covenant of the League of Nations might contain the benevolent statement that certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory

Until such time as they are able to stand alone 180 the Arabs knew what mandatories meant lloy George might utter felicitous phrases such as Arab forces have redeemed the pledges given to Great Britain and we should redeem our pledges 181 the Arabs had read the secret treaties in vain is the net

Spread in the sight of any Bird the game no longer worked the Arabs knew that they must rely on their own efforts either in diplomacy or War fil still counseled peace he was probably influenced to this not merely by the risks of armed resistance but also by

The fact that the Allies were now quarreling among themselves these quarrels of course extended all over the near East but there was none more bitter than the quarrel which had broken out between England and France over the division of the Arab spoils this dispute originated in French dissatisfaction with the secret treaties

No sooner had the syes Pico agreement been published than large and influential sections of French opinion began shouting that they had been duked for Generations French imperialists had had their eye on Syria 182 and since the beginning of the war the imperialist Press had been conducting an Ardent propaganda for Wholesale annexations in

The near East La Syria integral all Syria was the cry and this all included not merely the coast strip assigned France by the syes Pico agreement but also Palestine and the vast Aleppo Damascus hinderland right across to the rich oil fields of mosul to this entire region often termed

In French expansionist circles La France du lant the imperialists asserted that France had imprescriptible historic rights running back to the Crusades and even to Charlamagne Syria was a second alsas which held out its arms to France and would not be denied it was also the indispensable fulcrum of French World policy these

Imperialist aspirations had powerful backing in French government circles for example early in 1915 EML had said in the chamber of deputies the AIS of French policy is in the Mediterranean one of its polls is in the west at alers Tunis and Morocco the other must lie in the East with Syria Lebanon Palestine

183 after such high hopes the effect of the syes Pico agreement on French imperialists Can Be Imagined their anger turned naturally upon the English who were roundly denounced and blamed for everything that was happening in the East Arab nationalist aspirations being stigmatized as nothing but British propaganda cried one French writer

Some psychiatrist ought to write a study of these British colonial officials implacable imperialists megalomaniacs who night and day work for their country without even asking counsel from London and whose constant care is to annihilate in Syria as they once annihilated in Egypt the supremacy of France 184 in answer to such

Fulminations English writers scored French greed and Folly which was compromising England’s Prestige and threatening to set the whole East on fire 185 in fine there was a very pretty row on between people who less than a year before had been pledging their sacred Union for all eternity the Arabs

Were certainly much edified and the other Eastern peoples as well largely owing to these bickerings Allied action in the near East was delayed through 1919 but by the spring of 1920 the Allies came to a measure of agreement the meeting of of the Allied premieres at Sano elaborated the terms of the

Treaty to be imposed on Turkey dividing Asia Minor into spheres of influence and exploitation while the Arab provinces were assigned England and France according to the terms of the syes Pico agreement properly camouflaged of course as mandates of the League of Nations England France and their satellite Greece prepared for Action British

Reinforcements were sent to Mesopotamia and Palestine French reinforcements were sent to Syria an Anglo Franco Greek Force prepared to occupy Constantinople and Premier ven zelos promised a Greek army for Asia Minor contingencies the one ripped in the loot was Italy Italy saw big trouble brewing and determined not to be directly

Involved said Premier Nitti to an English journalist after the Sano conference you will have war in Asia Minor and Italy will not send a single soldier nor pay a single l you have taken from the Turks their Sacred City of adrianople you have placed their capital city under foreign control you

Have taken from them every port and the larger part of their territory and the five Turkish delegates whom you will select will sign a treaty which will not have the sanction of the Turkish people or the Turkish Parliament Premier Nitti was a true Prophet for months past the

Turkish nationalists knowing what was in store for them had been building up a center of resistance in the interior of Asia Minor of course the former nationalist leaders such as enir pasia had long since fled to distant Havens like transcaucasia or Bolshevik Russia but new leaders appeared notably a young

Officer of marked military Talent Musta Kamal Pasha with great energy Musta Kamal built up a really creditable Army and from his Capital the city of Angora in the heart of Asia Minor he now defied the Allies emphasizing his Defiance by attacking the French Garris in cicia a

Coast District in Asia Minor just north of Syria inflicting heavy losses the Arabs also were preparing for Action in March a pans Syrian congress met at Damascus unanimously declared the independence of Syria and elected fisel King this announcement electrified all the Arab provinces in the French occupied coastal zone riots broke out

Against the French in Palestine there were pilgrims against the Jews whom the Arabs both Muslim and Christian hated for their Zionist plans while in Mesopotamia there were sporadic uprisings of tribesmen faced by this ominous situation the mandatories took military countermeasures the French took especially vigorous action France now

Had nearly 100,000 men in Syria and cicia headed by General gurro a veteran of many colonial wars and a believer in strong armed methods on July 15th gurro sent fisel an ultimatum requiring complete submission fisel diplomatic to the last actually accepted the ultimatum but gurro ignored this acceptance on a

Technicality and struck for Damascus with 60,000 men fisel attempted no real resistance fighting only a rear guard action and withdrawing into the desert on July 25th the French entered Damascus the Arab Capital deposed fil and set up thoroughgoing French rule opposition was punished with the greatest severity

Damascus was muled of a war contribution of 10 million Franks after the German fashion in Belgium many nationalist leaders were imprisoned or shot while guro announced that the death of one French subject or one Christian would be followed by wholesale most terrible reprisals by bombing airlanes 186 before this Napoleonic thunderstroke

Syri event for the moment apparently terrorized in Mesopotamia however the British were not so fortunate for some months trouble had patently been breuing and in March the British commander had expressed himself as much struck with the volcanic possibilities of the country in jly all Mesopotamia flamed into Insurrection and

Though Britain had fully 100,000 troops in the province they were hard put to it to stem the Rebellion meanwhile the Allies had occupied Constantinople to force acceptance of the draft Treaty of Peace naturally there was no resistance Constantinople being entirely at the mercy of the Allied Fleet but the

Silence of the vast throngs gathered to watch the incoming troops filled some Allied observers with disquietude a French journalist wrote The Silence of the multitude was more impressive than boisterous protests their eyes glowed with Sullen hatred scattered through this throng of mute prostrated hopeless people circulated watchful and sinuous emissaries who were

To carry word of this Misfortune to the remotest confines of Islam in a few hours they would be in Anatolia a couple of days later the news would have spread to Kanya Angora and shivas in a brief space of time it would be heralded throughout the regions of bolshevist influence extending to the

Caucasus and Beyond in a few weeks all these centers of agitation will be preparing their Counterattack Asia and Africa will again cement their Union of Faith intelligent agents will record in the retentive minds of people who do not read the history of our blunders these missionaries of insurrection and fanaticism come from

Every race and class of society educated and refined men disguise themselves as Beggars and outcasts in order to spread the news a paace and to prepare for bitter Vengeance 187 events in Turkey now preceded precisely as the Italian Premier nidi had foretold the Allied masters of Constantinople compelled the sultan to

Appoint a friendly cabinet which solemnly denounced Musta kimal and his Rebels and sent a handpicked delegation to SRA France where they dutifully signed on the dotted line the treaty that the Allies had prepared the Allies had thus imposed their will on paper for every sensible man knew that the whole

Business was a roaring farce knew that the friendly government from Sultan to meist clerk was as nationalist as mustu kimal himself knew that the real Turkish Capital was not Constantinople but Angora and that the Allies power was measured by the range of their guns as for Musta Kamal his comment on the sever

Treaty was I will fight to the end of the world the Allies were thus in a decidedly embarrassing situation especially since the Allies now meant only England and France Italy was out of the game as nidi had warned at Sano she would not send a single soldier nor pay

A single L with 2 100,000 soldiers holding down the Arabs and plenty of trouble elsewhere neither France nor Britain had the troops to crush Mikala job which the French staff estimated would take 300,000 men one weapon however they still possessed Greece in return for large territorial concessions

Premier venel offered to bring the Turks to reason his offer was accepted and 100,000 Greek troops landed at Smyrna but the Greek campaign was not a success even 100,000 men soon wor thin when spread out over the vast Asia Minor Plateau Musta kimal avoided decisive battle harassing the Greeks by Guerilla

Warfare just as he was harassing the French in cicia at the other end of the line the Greeks dug in and a deadlock ensued which threatened to continue indefinitely this soon caused a new complication venny zelos might be willing to carry on as the Allies sub mandatory but the Greek people were not

Kept virtually on a war footing since 1912 the Greeks kicked over the traces in the November elections they repudiated ven zelos by a vote of 990,000 to 10,000 and recalled King Constantine who had been deposed by the Allies 3 years before this meant that Greece like Italy was out of the game to

Be sure King Constantine presently started hostilities with the Turks on his own account this was however something very different from Greece’s attitude under the veneis list regime the Allies weapon had thus broken in their hands meanwhile mimal was not merely consolidating his authority in Asia Minor but was gaining allies of his

Own in the first place he was esta lishing close relations with the Arabs it may appear strange to find such bitter foes become friends nevertheless Franco British policy had achieved even the seeming Miracle the reason was clearly explained by no less a person than Lawrence the soul of the Arab

Revolution who had returned to Civil Life and was thus free to speak his mind on the Eastern situation which he did in no uncertain fashion in one of several statements given to the British press Lawrence said the Arabs rebelled against the Turks during the war not because the

Turkish government was notably bad but because they wanted Independence they did not risk their lives in battle to change Masters to become British subjects or French citizens but to win a state of their own the matter was put even more pointedly by an Arab nationalist leader in The

Columns of a French radical paper opposed to the Syrian Adventure said this leader both the French and the English should know once for all that the Arabs are joined by a common religion with the Turks and have been politically identified with them for centuries and therefore do not wish to

Separate themselves from their fellow Believers and brothers in arms merely to submit to the domination of a European nation no matter what form the latter suarin may assume it is no use for M Milan to say we have never thought of trespassing in any respect upon the

Independence of these people no one is deceived by such statements as that the the Armistice was signed in accordance with the conditions proclaimed by Mr Wilson but as soon as Germany and its allies were helpless the promises of the Armistice were trotten underfoot as well

As the 14 points such a violation of the promises of complete Independence so prodigally made to the Arabs on so many occasions has resulted in reuniting closer than ever the Arabs and the Turks it has taken but a few months to restore that intimacy it is probable that France

By maintaining an army of 150,000 men in Syria and by spending billions of Franks will be able to subdue the Syrian Arabs but that will not finish the task the interior of that country borders upon other lands inhabited by Arabs Kurds and Turks and by the immense desert in starting a

Conflict with 4 million syrians France will be making enemies of 15 million Arabs in the Levant most of whom are armed tribes without including the other muhammadan peoples who are speedily acquiring solidarity and organization under the blows that are being dealt them by the UN taunt if you believe I am

Exaggerating all you have to do is to investigate the facts yourself but what good will it do to confirm the truth too late and after floods of blood have flowed 188 in fact signs of turo Arab cooperation became everywhere apparent to be sure this cooperation was not openly AOW

Either by mustu kimal or by the deposed King fisel who fleeing to Italy continued his diplomatic Maneuvers but Arabs fought beside Turks against the French in cicia Turks and Kurds joined the Syrian Arabs in their continual local risings while kamal’s hand was clearly apparent in the Rebellion against the British in

Mesopotamia this Arab onun was not the whole of Musta kamal’s foreign policy he was also reach in out northeastward to the tartars of transcaucasia and the turkomans of Persian azerbijan the Caucasus was by this time the scene of a highly complicated struggle between Muslim tartars and turkomans Christian Armenians and Georgians and various

Russian factions which was fast reducing that unhappy region to chaos among the tartar turkomans long leavened by pananian Propaganda mimal found enthusiastic adherence and his efforts were supported by a third Ally Bolshevik Russia Bolshevik policy which as we have already stated was seeking to stir up trouble against the Western Powers

Throughout the East had watched kamal’s rise with great satisfaction at first the biki could do very little for the Turkish nationalists because they were not in direct touch but the collapse of rangle’s white Army in November 1920 and the consequent overrunning of all South Russia by the

Red armies opened a direct line for from Moscow to Angora via the Caucasus and henceforth Musta kimal was supplied with money arms and a few men furthermore Kamal and the babiki were starting trouble in Persia that country was in a most deplorable condition during the war Persia despite her technical neutrality

Had been a Battle Ground between the Anglo Russians on the one hand and the Turco Germans on the other Russia’s collapse in 1917 had led to her military withdrawal from Persia and England profiting by the situation had made herself Supreme legalizing her position by the famous agreement negotiated with

The Sha’s government in August 1919 189 this treaty though signed and sealed in due form was bitterly resented by the Persian people here was obviously another ripe field for Bolshevik propaganda accordingly the Bolshevik government renounced All rights in Persia acquired by the zarus regime and proclaimed themselves the friends of the

Persian people against Western imperialism naturally the game worked and Persia soon became honeycombed with militant unrest in the early summer of 1920 a bolshevist force actually crossed the Caspian Sea and landed on the Persian Shore they did not penetrate far into the country they did not need to

For the country simply eest in a way which made the British position increasingly untenable for many months a confused situation ensued in fact at this writing the situation is still obscure but there can be no doubt that Britain’s hold on Persia is Gravely shaken and she may soon be compelled to

Evacuate the country with the possible exception of the extreme South turning back to the Autumn of 1920 the position of England and France in the near East had become far from Bright deserted by Italy and Greece defied by the Turks harried by the Arabs worried by the Egyptians and Persians and Everywhere

Menaced by the subtle workings of bism the situation was not a happy one the burden of empire was proving heavy in Mesopotamia alone the bill was already 100 million Sterling with no relief in sight under these circumstances it is not surprising that in both England and France near Eastern policies were

Subjected to a growing flood of criticism in England especially the tide ran very strong the Mesopotamian embolia was denounced as both a crime and a blunder for example Colonel Lawrence stated we are today not far from disaster our government is worse than the old Turkish system they kept 14,000

Local conscripts in the ranks and killed yearly an average of 200 Arabs in maintaining peace we keep 90,000 men with airplanes Armored Cars gun boats and armored trains we have killed killed about 10,000 Arabs in the rising this summer 190 influenced by such criticisms and by the general trend of events the

British government modified its attitude sending out sir Percy Cox to negotiate with the Arabs sir Percy Cox was a man of the Milner type with a firm grip on realities and an intimate experience with Eastern Affairs authorized to discuss large concessions he met the Nationalist leaders frankly and made a

Good impression upon them at this writing matters have not been definitely settled but it looks as though England was planning to limit her Direct Control to the extreme South of Mesopotamia at the head of the Persian Gulf practically her old sphere of influence before 1914 meanwhile in Syria France has thus

Far succeeded in maintaining relative order by strong arm methods but the situation is highly unstable all classes of the population have been alienated even the cathol marites traditionally pro- French have begun agitating General gurro promptly squelched the agitation by deporting the leaders to Corsica nevertheless the fact remains that France’s only real friends

In Syria are dissatisfied up to the present these things have not changed France’s attitude a short time ago ex- Premier legs remarked of Syria France will occupy all of it and always while still more recently General gurro stated France must remain in Syria both for political and economic reasons the

Political consequences of our abandonment of the country would be disastrous our Prestige and influence in the Levant and the Mediterranean would be doomed the economic interests of France also compel us to remain there when fully developed Syria and cicia will have an economic value fully equal to that of

Egypt however despite the French government’s firmness there is an increasing public criticism of the Syrian Adventure not merely from radical Anti-Imperialist quarters but from unimpeachably conservative circles as well the editor of one of the most conservative French political periodical has stated jealous of its autonomy the Arab people liberated from the ottoman

Yoke do not desire a new foreign domination to say that Syria demands our protection is a lie Syria wishes to be entirely independent one 191 and recently Senator Victor Bard one of France’s recognized authorities on Eastern Affairs made a speech in the French Senate strongly criticizing the government’s Syrian policy from the very

Start and declaring that a free Syria was a question of both interest and honor certainly the French government still so unyielding toward the Arabs has reversed its attitude toward the Turks sidest stepping the sever treaty it has lately agreed on provisional peace terms with the Turk Turkish nationalists

Actually agreeing to evacuate cicia in fact both France and England know that the seever treaty is unworkable and that Turkish possession of virtually the whole of Asia Minor will have to be recognized in negotiating with mimal France undoubtedly hopes to get him to throw over the Arabs but this is

Scarcely thinkable the whole trend of events betokens an increasing solidarity of the neare Eastern peoples against Western political control Ro a most remarkable portent in this direction is the pan Islamic Conference held at shivas early in 1921 this conference called to draw up a definite scheme for Effective Muslim

Cooperation the world over was attended not merely by the high Orthodox Muslim dignitaries and political leaders but also by heterodox Chiefs like the Shia Amir of kerbala the Imam yayat and the Zite Amir of Yemen leaders of heretical sex between whom and the Orthodox sunnis coop eration had previously been

Impossible most notable of all the press report state that the conference was presided over by no less a personage than El seny this may well be so for we have already seen how the seny have always worked for a close Union of all Islam against Western domination such is the situation in the

Near East a situation very grave and full of trouble the most hopeful portent is the apparent Awakening of the British government to the growing Perils of the hour and its consequent modifications of attitude the labors of men like Lord Milner and Sir Percy Cox however hampered by per blind influences can

Scarcely be wholly Barren of results such men are the Diplomatic descendants of chadam and of Durham the upholders of that great political tradition which has steered the British Empire safely through crises that appeared hopeless on the other hand the darkest portent in the near East is the continued intransigence of France

Steeped in its old traditions French policy apparently refuses to face realities if an explosion comes as come it must unless France modifies her attitude if some dark day 30 or 40 French battalions are caught in a simum of Arab Fury blowing out of the desert and are annihilated in a new idwa the

Regretful verdict of many vers in eastern Affairs can only be French policy has deserved it leaving the ne Eastern problem at this critical juncture to the inscrutable solution of the future let us now turn to the great political problem of the Middle East the Nationalist movement in India

Footnotes 138 for these early stages of the Turkish nationalist movement C amury La turkey D etan KS and his Western culture in eastern lands also the articles by Leon Kon in lavis ET ramid previously cited n l Russo l effort ottoman Paris 1907 139 Bard leie Sultan L Islam puces p16 Paris

1907 140 cided by Bard p19 141 cided by Bard P20 142 Le reviled de law Nation Arab by Nei bouri Paris 19 1905 143 the semi-legendary founder of the Ottoman Empire 144 the texts of both the above documents can be most conveniently found in eong le pu’s devant la Revolt Arab la

Chist mandial de domain Pages 23-25 Paris 1906 145 a good analysis of Arab Affairs on the eve of the Great War is that of the Muslim publicist X laran po Cas Dan Eland Arab review Dand musulman December 1913 also cgw Barry Arabia in felixs or the Turks in Yemen London

1915 146 for Arab Affairs during the Great War CE Yong L Independence Arab ET law Revolt act law review August 1st 1916 ID Lavine Arabs versus Turks American review of reviews November 1916 am muul zikik V Arabian leig 1918 GW Barry pen Islam London 199 s mria the Politico religious

Situation in Arabia the Muslim World July 1919 L Thomas Lawrence the soul of the Arabian Revolution Asia a April May June 1920 147 George schweinfurth dwier jber a I’m Lin Al G clarton Islam Berlin 1,895 148 low Egypt in transition p260 London 1914 149 the Asiatic review April

1914 150 lypt ETL debuts du protector at review day Sciences po Cas June 15th 1915 151 Mohammad fared Bay L Egypt ET log a review politique International May 1915 152 abdl Malik hamsa diis FR Asen November 1916 150 three a good summary of Berber history is H yber lay blanks da Afric Paris

1910 1544 analyses of differences between Arabs and berbers CK taore arabes ET cabes Paris 1,891 Abel c oyer l Islam and burberi Paris 1917 155 for short historical summary CAC coolage the European reconquest of North Africa American historical review July 192 156 for these nationalist movements in French North Africa CA serier Le

Nationalism of musulman Constantine Algeria 1913 pppy L civilizations Tans Paris 1,898 p Millet Le Jun algerians review to Paris November 1st 1913 157 a good analysis of the pre-revolutionary reformist movements is found in X law situation politique to purse review Dand musulman June 1914 see also vur Western culture in

Eastern lands General Sir te Gordon the reform movement in Persia proceedings of the Central Asian Society March 13 1907 158 CW Morgan Schuster the Strangling of Persia New York 1912 also for earlier phase of the Revolution ceg Brown the revolution in Persia London 1910 159 EG Brown the present situation

In Persia contemporary review November 1912 160 vur L turkey D ETD aan KS Pages 11 to 12 161 for the tartar Revival CS bronnikov Muslims in Russia the Muslim World January 1911 Feb Le totter de crimey review Dand musulman August 1907 a chatelier lameu San’s russes review do mman December

1906 father Von McKay dwen russland aisin fulker shuen deuts runell March 1918 armenius vur Western culture in eastern lands H Williams the Russian mohammadans Russian review February 1914 x l pen islamis mle pan turkism review Dand musulman March 1913 162 for these activities C article by X quoted above also ahed emmen the

Development of modern turkey as measured by its press New York 1914 163 for these pananian tendencies in Hungary and Bulgaria seei article paninis American Political Science review February 1917 64c article by X quoted above also his article L Kuran po K’s Dan La turkey contemporan review Dand musulman December

1912 165 ex-chief of general staff ottoman Ernst parquin in the Berliner Tage blat January 24th 1920 for Turkish nationalist activities and attitudes during the war see further id1 99a manual on the turanians and pananian ISM compiled by the geographical section of the naval Intelligence Division Naval staff admiralty London 1919 EF Benson Crescent

And Iron Cross London 1918 ma zapa the Turks of Central Asia an inquiry into the pananian problem Oxford 1918 H morgantha Ambassador morgantha story New York 1918 Dr Harry sturmer two Warriors in Constantinople New York 1917 am on Del Stam the Turkish Spirit new Europe April 22nd

1920 166 for pen Arab developments C muul zai gik van Arabian leig 1918 mthal Turkey England and the present crisis Asiatic review October 1st 1914 a serier Le nationalism of musulman sh kbdl aiz shaes do M gabay dur robis chenat pisar buter September 1916 167 literally House of Islam all

Non-muslim lands are collectively known as D Al harb or House of War 168 I.E the organized group of followers of a particular religion 169 Muhammad Ali L movement musulman Dan elind review politique International January 1914 he headed the so-called CIT delegation sent by the Indian Muslims to

England in 1919 to protest against the partition of the Ottoman Empire by the peace treaties 170a serier Le nationalism of musulman P 1881 171 for pan-islamic nationalism besides serier and Mohammad Ali quoted above C chatel Lis LOD Dix Nola Paris 1,888 same author politique musulman review Dand musulman September 1910 sir

T Morrison England and Islam 19th century and after July 1919 G deor Law question Persona Pages 23-31 Paris 1916 wed Allen transcaucasia past and present quarterly review October 1920 172 Egyptian white book collection of official correspondents of the Egyptian delegation to the peace conference Paris 1919

173 G subini in the corer deer December 30th 1919 174 Madam Jen DV Ray and Egypt review to Paris September 15th 1920 Madame di rites other picturesque incidents of aike character C also annexes to Egyptian white book previously quoted these annexes contain numerous depositions often accompanied by photographs alleging severities and

Atrocities by the British troops 175 contained in the Press statements previously mentioned 176 sir M mckel Ruth Egyptian nationalism Edinburgh review July 1919 see also honorable W orms begore the future in Egypt new Europe November 6th 1919 177 for unfortunate aspects of this delay C sir Valentine kyule conflicting

Policies in the East new Europe July 1st 1920 178 for a good account of Lawrence and his work C series of articles by El Thomas Lawrence the soul of the Arabian Revolution Asia April May June July 1920 179 a notable example is General Ma’s proclamation to the Mesopotamian Arabs in March

1917 180 article XXII 181 from a speech delivered September 19th 1919 182 for examples of this pre-war imperialist propaganda CG po Le interet France and Syria questions diplomatics ET Colony ales March 1st to 16th 1913 among other interesting facts the author cites Premier P declaration before the Chamber of deputies December

21st 1912 I need not remark that in the Lebanon and Syria particularly we have traditional interests and that we intend to make them respected see also Jala L tra solutions to law questions Syrian questions diplomatics ET Colony alies October 16th 1913 lle fur Le protector at La Fran surle catholic’s deori Paris

1914 183 quoted by Senator e flandrin in his article NOS droids and Syria ET and Palestine one review HEB doer June 5th 1915 for other examples of French imperialist propaganda C besides above article CG bosim law question du Livin Paris 1915 h bodan law serrier champ de politique law review male February 1st

To 15 1920 K CR La Franz Paris 1916 F La La France du lant review HEB doer March 1st 1919 184 bwan Supra for other violent anti-british comment see L Supra 185 for Sharp British criticisms of the French attitude in Syria C beckles Wilson are amazing Syrian Adventure National Review September 1920 W

Uranowski the Arab cause Balkan review September 1920 both of these writers were officers in the British forces in the Arab area see also strong articles by terara in the Balkan review August and October 1920 186 for accounts of French severities see articles just quoted 187 BG GIS in L opinion April 24th

1920 188 Le popular February 16th 1920 189 for the details of these events see my article on Persia in the century January 1920 190 statement given to the press in August 1920 191 on Rita chamen editor of law review Parliament air quoted by beckles Wilson our amazing Syrian Adventure National Review September

1920 chapter 6 nationalism in India India is a land of paradox possessing a fundamental geographical Unity India has has never known real political union save that recently imposed externally by the British Raj full of warlike stocks India has never been able to repel Invaders occupied by many races these

Races have never really fused but have remain distinct and mutually hostile sundered by barriers of blood speech culture and Creed thus India large and populace as Europe or China has neither like China evolved a generalized National Unity nor like Europe has developed a specialized National diversity but has remained an amorphous

Unstable indeterminate with tendencies in both directions which were never carried to their logical conclusion India’s history has been influenced mainly by three great invasions the Aryan Invasion commencing about 1,500 BC The muhammadan Invasion extending roughly from ad 1,00 to 1,700 and the English Invasion beginning about ad

1,750 and culminating a century later in a complete Conquest which has lasted to the present day the Aryans were a fair-skinned people unquestionably of the same General stock as ourselves pressing down from Central Asia through those Northwestern passes where Al lone land access is possible to India elsewhere impregnably guarded by

The mountain wall of the Himalayas the Aryan subdued the darkskinned dravidian Aborigines and and settled down as Masters this Conquest was however superficial and partial the bulk of the arens remained in the Northwest the more adventurous Spirits scattering thinly over the rest of the vast Peninsula even

In the north large areas of Hill Country and jungle remained in the exclusive possession of the Aborigines while very few Aryans ever penetrated the south over most of India therefore the Aryans were merely a small ruling class super imposed upon a much more numerous subject population fearing to be

Swallowed up in the dravidian ocean the Aryans attempted to preserve their political ascendency and racial Purity by the institution of cast which has ever since remained the basis of Indian social life cast was originally a color line but it was enforced not So Much by civil law as by religion Society was

Divided into three casts brahin or priests katras or Warriors and sudras or workers the Aryans monopolized the two upper casts the sudras being the dravidian subject population these casts were kept apart by a rigorous series of religious taboos intermarriage partaking of food and drink even physical propinquity entailed ceremonial defilement sometimes

Inexpiable Disobedience to these taboos was punished with the terrible penalty of outcasting whereby the offender did not m nearly fall to a lower rank in the cast hierarchy but sank even below the sudra and became a pariah or man of no cast condemned to the most menial and

Revolting occupations and with no rights which even the sudra was bound to respect thus Indian Society was governed not by civil but by ceremonially religious law while conversely the nassen Indian religion brahmanism became not ethical but social in character these things produced the most momentous consequences as a color line cast worked very

Imperfectly despite its prohibitions even the brahmins became more or less impregnated with dravidian blood 192 but as a social system cast continued to function in ways peculiar to itself the three original casts gradually subdivided into hundreds and even thousands of subcast these subcast had little or nothing of the original racial

Significance but they were all just as exclusive as the Primal Trio and the outcome was a shattering of Indian Society into a chaos of rigid social atoms between which cooperation or even understanding was impossible the results upon Indian history are obvious says a British Authority the effect of this permanent

Maintenance of human types is that the population is heterogeneous to the last degree it is no question of rich and poor of town and country of employer and employed the differences lie far deeper the population of a district or a town is a collection of different nationalities almost different species

Of mankind that will not eat or drink or intermar with one another and that are governed in the more important Affairs of Life by Committees of Their Own It is hardly too much to say that by the cast system the inhabitants of India are differentiated into over 2,000 species

Which in the intimate physical relations of Life have as little in common as the inmates of a Zoological Garden 193 obviously a land socially atomized and politically split into many principalities was destined to fall before the first strong Invader this Invader was Islam the muhammadans attacked India soon after their conquest

Of Persia but these early attacks were mere border raids without lasting significance the first real muhammadan invasion was that of mmud of gazni an Afghan Prince in ad11 following the road taken by the Aryans ages before mmud conquered Northwestern India the region known as the Punjab Islam had thus obtained a firm

Foothold in India and subsequent Muslim leaders spread gradually Eastward until most of Northern India was under Muslim rule the Invaders had two notable advantages they were fanatically United against the despised idolators and they drew many converts from the native population the very antithesis of brahmanism Islam with its doctrine that all believers are

Brothers could not fail to attract multitudes of low casts and outcasts who by conversion might rise to the status of the conquerors this is the main reason why the muhammadans in India today number more than 70 comma 0000 comma over 1/5 of the total population these Indian Muslims are

Descended not merely from Afghan Turkish Arab and Persian Invaders but even more from the millions of Hindu converts who embraced Islam for many generations the Muslim hold on India was confined to the north then early in the 16th century the great Turk Mongol leader babber entered India and founded the Mogul Empire

Babber and his successors overran even the South and United India politically as it had never been United before but even this Conquest was superficial the brahans threatened with destruction preached a Hindu Revival the Mogul Dynasty petered out and at the beginning of the 18th century the Mogul Empire

Collapsed leaving India a Welter of Waring principalities mohammadan and Hindu fighting each other for religion for politics or for sheer lust of plunder out of this Anarchy the British Rose to power the British were at first merely one of several other European elements Portuguese Dutch and French who esta established small settlements along

The Indian coasts the Europeans never dreamed of conquering India while the Mogul power endured in fact the British connection with India began as a purely trading Venture the East India Company but when India collapsed into Anarchy the Europeans were first obliged to acquire local authority to protect their

Factories and later were lured into more ambitious schemes by the impotence of petty rulers gradually the British ousted their European rivals and established a solid political foothold in India the one stable element in a seething chaos the British inevitably extended their Authority at first they did so reluctantly the East India Company long

Remained primarily a trading Venture aiming at dividends rather than Dominion however it later evolved into a real government with an ambitious policy of annexation this in turn awakened the fears of many Indians and brought on the Mutiny of 1,800 57 the Mutiny was quelled the East India Company abolished and India came

Directly under the British crown queen Victoria being later proclaimed Empress of India these events in turn resulted not only in a strengthening of British political Authority but also in an increased penetration of Western influences of every description roads Railways and canals opened up and unified India as never before the

Piercing of the ismos of Sue Has facilitated communication with Europe while education on European lines spread Western ideas over this rapidly changing India stood the British Raja system of government unique in the world’s history it was the government of a few hundred highly skilled administrative experts backed by a small professional Army

Ruling a vast AG glomeration of subject peoples it was frankly an absolute paternalism governing as it saw fit with no more responsibility to the Govern than the native desp whom it had displaced but it governed well in efficiency honesty and sense of Duty the government of India is probably the best

Example of benevolent absolutism that the world has ever seen it gave India profound peace it played no favorites holding the scales even between rival races Creeds and casts lastly it made India a real political entity something which India had never been before for the first time in history India was

Firmly United under one rule the rule of the Pax Britannica yet the very virtues of British rule SED the seeds of future trouble Generations grew up peacefully United in unprecedented acquaintanceship forgetful of past ills seeing only European shortcomings and above all familiar with Western ideas of self-government Liberty and

Nationality in India as elsewhere in the East there was bound to a arise a growing movement of discontent against Western rule a discontent varying from moderate demands for increasing autonomy to radical demands for immediate Independence down to the last quarter of the 19th century organized political agitation against the British Raj was

Virtually unknown here and there isolated individuals uttered half audible protests but these voices found no popular Echo the Indian masses preoccupied with the everpresent problem of getting a living accepted passively a government no more absolute and infinitely more efficient than its predecessors of anything like self-conscious Indian Nationalism there

Was virtually no trace the first symptom of organized discontent was the formation of the Indian National Congress in the year 1,885 the very name showed that the British Raj covering all India was itself evoking among India’s diverse elements a certain common point of view and aspiration however the early congresses were very

Far from representing Indian public opinion in the general sense of the term on the contrary these congresses represented merely a small class of professional men journalists and politicians all of them trained in Western ideas the European methods of Education which the British had introduced had turned out an Indian intelligencia conversant with the

English language and saturated with westernism this new intelligencia convinced as it was of the value of Western ideals and achievements could not fail to be dissatisfied with many aspects of Indian life in fact its first efforts were directed not so much to Politics as to Social and economic

Reforms like the suppression of child marriage the remarriage of widows and wider education But as time passed matters of political reform came steadily to the four saturated with English History and political philosophy as they were the Indian intellectuals felt more and more keenly their total lack of self-government and aspired to endow

India with those blessings of liberty so highly prized by their English rulers soon a vigorous native press developed preaching the new gospel welding the intellectuals into a self-conscious unity and molding a genuine public opinion by the close of the 19th century the Indian intelligencia was frankly agitating for sweeping Poli itical

Innovations like representative councils increasing control over Taxation and the executive and the opening of the Public Services to Indians all the way up the scale down to the closing years of the 19th century Indian discontent was as already said confined to a small class of more or less europeanized intellectuals who despite their

Assumption of the title could hardly be termed nationalists in the ordinary sense of the word with a few exceptions they goal was neither Independence nor the elimination of effective British oversight but rather the reforming of Indian Life along Western lines including a growing degree of self-government under British Paramount

Authority but by the close of the 19th century there came a change in the situation India like the rest of the Orient was stirring to a new spirit of political and racial self-consciousness true nationalist symptoms began to appear Indian Scholars delved into the musty Chronicles and sacred texts and proclaimed the glories

Of India’s historic past reformed Hindu sects like the area Sage lent religious sanctions the little band of europeanized intellectuals was joined by other elements thinking not in terms of peac meal reforms on Western models but of a new India rejuvenated from its own vital forces and free to work out its

Own destiny in its own way from the Nationalist ranks now arose the challenging Logan bandam hail motherland 194 the outstanding feature about this early Indian Nationalism was that it was a distinctively Hindu movement the muhammadans regarded it with suspicion or hostility and for this they had good reasons the ideal of the new

Nationalists was Aryan India the India of the Golden Age back to the vadas was a nationalist watchword and this implied a veneration for the past including a Revival of aggressive brahmanism an extraordinary change came over The intelligen Men Who a few years before had proclaimed the superiority of

Western ideas and had openly flouted superstitions like idol worship now denounced everything Western and reverently sacrificed to the Hindu gods the sacred soil of India must be purged of the Foreigner 195 but the Foreigner as these nationalists can see D him was not merely the Englishman he was the

Muhammadan as well this was stirring up the past with a Vengeance for centuries the great Hindu muhammadan division had run like a kmth wart India it had never been closed but it had been somewhat veiled by the neutral overlordship of the British Raj now the veil was torn

Aside and the mohammadans saw themselves menaced by a recrudescence of militant Hinduism like that which had shattered the Mogul Empire after the death of the EMP orb 200 years before the mohammadans were not merely alarmed they were infuriated as well remembering the glories of the Mogul Empire just as the

Hindus did the glories of Aryan India they considered themselves the rightful Lords of the land and had no mind to fall under the sway of despised idolators the muhammadans had no love for the British but they hated the Hindus and they saw in the British Raj a Bull workk against the potential Menace

Of hereditary enemies who outnumbered them nearly 5 to1 thus the muhammadans denounced Hindu nationalism and proclaimed their loyalty to the Raj to be sure the Indian Muslims were also affected by the general Spirit of unrest which was sweeping over the East they too felt a quickened sense of self-consciousness but being a minority

In India their feelings took the form not of territorial patriotism but of those more diffused sentiments pan islamism and Pen Islam nationalism which we have already discussed 196 early Indian Nationalism was not merely Hindu in character it was distinctly brahmanical as well more and more the brahans became the driving

Power of the movement seeking to perpetuate their Supremacy in the India of the morrow as they had enjoyed it in the India of the past but this aroused apprehension in certain sections of Hindu Society many loc casts and Paras began to fear that an indep dependent or

Even autonomous India might be ruled by a tyrannical Brahman oligarchy which would deny them the benefits they now enjoyed under British rule 10097 also many of the Hindu princes disliked the thought of a Theocratic regime which might reduce them to Shadows 1098 thus the Nationalist movement stood out as an

Alliance between the brahin and the Western educated intelligencia who had pulled their Ambitions in a program for jointly ruling India quickened by this ambition and fired by religious Zeal the Nationalist movement rapidly acquired a fanatical temper characterized by a mystical abhorrence of everything Western and a ferocious hatred of all

Europeans the Russo Japanese war greatly inflamed this Spirit and the very next year 1905 an act of the Indian government precipitated the Gathering storm this act was the famous partition of Bengal the partition was a mere administrative measure with no political intent but the nationalists made it a vital

Issue and about this grievance they started an intense propaganda that soon filled India with seditious unrest the leading spirit in this agitation was B ganga arik who has been called the father of Indian unrest till typified the Nationalist movement AB Brahman with an excellent Western education he was

The sworn foe of English Rule and Western Civilization an able propagandist his speeches r Ed his hearers to frenzy while his newspaper the yantar of Kolkata preached a campaign of hate assassination and Rebellion Till’s incitements soon produced tangible results numerous riots deities and murders of Englishmen taking place and

Of course the yugantar was merely one of a large number of nationalist organs some printed in the vernacular and others in English which VI with one another in seditious invective the violence of the Nationalist press may be judged by a few quotations Revolution asserted the yantar is the only way in which a

Slavish Society can save itself if you cannot prove yourself a man in life play the man in death foreigners have come and decided how you are to live but how you are to die depends entirely upon yourself let preparations be made for a general revolution in every household

The handful of police and soldiers will never be able to withstand this ocean of revolutionists revolutionists may be made prisoners and may die but thousands of others will spring into their places do not be afraid with the Blood of Heroes the soil of Hindustan is ever fertile do not be

Downhearted there is no Dar of Heroes there is no dir of money Glory awaits you a single frown a few bombs from your eyes has struck Terror into the part of the foe the Uproar of panic has filled the sky swim with Renewed Energy in the ocean of Bloodshed the assassination note was

Vehemently stressed said s krishn ARA in the Indian sociologist political assassination is not murder and the rightful employment of physical force canotes force used defensively against Force used aggressively the only subscription required stated the yantar is that every reader shall bring the head of a European not even women and children were spared

Commenting on the murder of an English lady and her daughter the yugantar exclaimed exultantly many a female demon must be killed in course of time in order to extrap the race of azurus from the breast of the Earth the fanaticism of the men usually very young men who committed these assassinations may be

Judged by the statement of the murderer of a high English official Sir Ken Wy made shortly before his execution I believe that a nation held down by Foreign bayonets is in a Perpetual state of War since open battle is rendered impossible to a disarmed race I attacked

By surprise since guns were denied to me I drew my pistol and fired as a Hindu I feel that wrong to my country is an insult to the gods her cause is the cause of Shri Ram her service is the service of Shri Krishna poor in wealth

And intellect a son like myself has nothing else to offer for the mother but his own blood and so I have sacrificed the same on her altar the only lesson required in India at present is to learn how to die and the only way to teach it

Is to die ourselves therefore I die and glory in my martyrdom this war will continue between England and India so long as the hindii and English races last if the present unnatural relation does not cease 199 the government’s answer to this campaign of sedition and assassination was of course Stern repression the

Native press was muzzled the agitators imprisoned or executed and the hands of the authorities were strengthened by punitive legislation in fact so infuriated was the European Community by the murders and outrages committed by the nationalists that many Englishmen urged the withdrawal of such political privileges as did exist the limiting of

Western education and the establishment of extreme autocratic rule these angry councils were at once caught up by the nationalists resulted in fresh outrages and were answered by more punishment and fresh menaces thus the extremists on both sides lashed each other to hotter Fury and worsen the situation for several

Years India seated with an unrest which jailings hangings and deportations did little to Alay presently however things took at least a temporary turn for the better the extremists were after all a small minority and cool heads both British and Indian were seeking a way out of the impass conservative Indian

Leaders like Mr goola condemned terrorism and besought their countrymen to seek the realization of their aspirations by peaceful means on the other hand liberal-minded Englishmen while refusing to be stampeded sought a program of conciliation Indian Affairs were then in the hands of the eminent liberal Statesman John Morley and and the fruit

Of his labors was the Indian council’s Act of 1909 the Act was a distinct departure from the hitherto almost unlimited absolutism of British rule in India it gave the Indian opposition greatly increased opportunities for advice criticism and debate and it initiated a restricted scheme of Elections to the legislative bodies which it

Established the salutary effect of these concessions was soon apparent the moderate nationalist elements while not wholly satisfied accepted the act as an Earnest of subsequent concessions and as a proof of British Goodwill the terrorism and sedici plottings of the extremists while not Stamped Out were held in check and driven

Underground King George’s visit to India in 1911 evoked a wave of loyal enthusiasm which swept the peninsula and augured well for the future the year 1911 was the high water mark of this era of appeasement following the storms of 1905 to9 the the years after 1911 witnessed a gradual recrudescence of

Discontent as the first effect of the council’s ACT wore off and the sense of unfulfilled aspiration sharpened the appetite for more in fact during these years Indian Nationalism was steadily broadening its base in one sense this made for stability for the Nationalist movement ceased to be a small minority

Of extremists and came more under the influence of moderate leaders like Mr goola who were content to work for distant goals by evolutionary methods it did however mean an increasing pressure on the government for fresh devolutions of authority the most noteworthy symptom of nationalist growth was the rallying

Of a certain section of muhammadan opinion to the Nationalist cause the muhammadans had by this time formed their own organization the all- India Muslim League the league was the reverse of nationalist Inc complexion having been formed primarily to protect Muslim interests against possible Hindu ascendancy nevertheless As Time passed

Some mohammadans reassured by the friendly attitude and Promises of the Hindu moderates abandon the League’s anti-hindu attitude and join the moderate nationalists though refraining from seditious agitation indeed the nationalists presently split into two distinct groups moderates and extremists The extremists Condemned by their fellows kept up a desolator

Campaign of violence largely directed by exiled leaders who from the shelter of foreign countries incited their followers at home to seditious agitation and violent action such was the situation in India on the outbreak of the Great War a situation by no means free from difficulty yet far less

Troubled than it had been a few years before of course the war produced an increase of unrest and a certain amount of terrorism yet India as a whole remained quiet throughout the war War India contributed men and money untinted to the Imperial cause and Indian troops figured notably on European Asiatic and African

Battlefields however though the War years passed without any serious outbreak of revolutionary violence it must not be thought that the far more widespread movement for increasing self-government had been either quenched or stilled on the contrary the war gave this movement fresh impetus louder and louder swelled the cry for not merely

Good govern but government acceptable to Indian Patriots because responsible to them the very fact that India had proved her loyalty to the Empire and had given generously of her blood and treasure were so many fresh Arguments uced for the grant of a larger measure of self-direction numerous were the

Memoranda presented to the British authorities by various sections of Indian public opinion these memoranda were an accurate reflection of the different shades of Indian Nationalism the ultimate goal of all was emanci ation from British tutelage but they differed widely among themselves as to how and when this emancipation was to

Be attained the most conservative contented themselves with asking for modified self-government under British guidance while the more ambitious asked for the full status of a Dominion of the British Empire like Australia and Canada the Revolutionary element naturally held aloof recognizing that only violence could serve their aim immediate and unqualified

Independence of course even the more moderate nationalist demands imply great changes in the existing governmental system and a diminution of British control such as the government of India was not prepared at present to concede nevertheless the government met these demands by a conciliatory attitude foreshadowing fresh concessions in the

Near future in 1916 the vicroy Lord Harding said I Do Not For a Moment wish to discountenance self-government for India as a national ideal it is a perfectly legit aspiration and has the sympathy of all moderate men but in the present position of India it is not idealism that is needed but practical

Politics we should do our utmost to Grapple with realities and lightly to raise extravagant hopes and encourage unrealizable demands can only tend to delay and will not accelerate political progress I know this is the sentiment of wise and thoughtful Indians nobody is more anxious than I am to see the early

Realization of the legitimate aspirations of Indian but I am equally desirous of avoiding all danger of reaction from the birth of Institutions which experience might prove to be premature as a matter of fact toward the close of 1917 Mr monu Secretary of State for India came out from England with the

Object of Thoroughly canvasing Indian public opinion on the question of constitutional reform for months the problem was carefully weighed conferences being held with the representatives of all Races class classes and Creeds the result of these researches was a Monumental report signed by Mr monague and by the vicroy

Lord chelsford and published in July 1918 the report recommended concessions far beyond Any Which Great Britain had hither to made it frankly envisaged the gift of home rule for India as soon as possible and went on to state that the gift was to be conferred not because of

Indian agitation but because of the faith that is in us there followed these memorable words we believe profoundly that the time has come when the sheltered existence which we have given India cannot be prolonged without damage to her National life that we have a richer gift for her people than any that

We have yet bestowed on them that nationhood within the Empire represents something better than anything India has hitherto attained that the Placid pathetic contentment of the masses is not the soil on which such Indian nationhood will grow and that in deliberately disturbing it we are working for her highest good

The essence of the report was its recommendation of the principle of diarchy or division of governmental responsibility between councelors nominated by the British executive and ministers chosen from elective legislative bodies this diarchy was to hold for both the Central and provincial governments the legislatures were to be elected by a much more extensive

Franchise than had previously prevailed and were to have greatly enlarged Powers previously they had been little more than advisory bodies now they were to become legislatur in the western sense though their powers were still limited many Powers particularly that of the purse being still reserved to the executive the British executive thus

Retained ultimate control and had the last word thus no true balance of power was to exist the scales being frankly waited in favor of the British Raj but the report went on to state that the scheme of government was not intended to be permanent that it was Frank a

Transitional measure a school in which the Indian people was to serve its apprenticeship and that when these first lessons in self-government had been learned India would be given a thoroughly representative government which would not only initiate and legislate but which would also control the executive officials the monague Chelmsford report was exhaustively

Discussed both in India and in England and from these Frank discussions an excellent idea of the Indian problem in all its challenging complexity can be obtained the nationalists split sharply on the issue the moderates welcoming the report and agreeing to give the proposed scheme of government their loyal cooperation

The extremists condemning the proposals as a snare and a sham the moderate attitude was stated in a Manifesto signed by their leaders headed by the eminent Indian Economist sir dsha Wata which stated the proposed scheme forms a complicated structure capable of improvement in some particulars especially at the top but is never the

Less a progressive measure the reforms are calculated to make the provinces of India reach the goal of complete responsible government on the whole the proposals are evolved with great foresight and conceived in a spirit of genuine sympathy with Indian political aspirations for which the distinguished authors are entitled to the country’s

Gratitude the condemnation of the radicals was voiced by leaders like Mr tiik who urged standing fast by the Indian National Congress ideal and M Mr buen chander pal who asserted it is my deliberate opinion that if the scheme is accepted the government will be more powerful and more autocratic than it is

Today extremely interesting was the protest of the anti-nationalist groups particularly the muhammadans and the low cast Hindus for it is a fact significant of the complexity of the Indian problem that many millions of Indians fear the Nationalist movement and look upon the autocracy of the British Raj as a shield

Against nationalist oppression and discrep Iration the mohammadans of India are on the question of self-government for India sharply divided among themselves the majority still dislike and fear the Nationalist movement owing to its Hindu character a minority however as already stated have rallied to the Nationalist cause this minority grew greatly in

Numbers during the War years their increased friendliness being due not merely to desire for self-government but also to anger and at the Allies policy of dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire and Kindred policies in the near and Middle East 200 the Hindu nationalists were quick to sympathize with the muhammadans on these external matters

And the result was a cordiality between the two elements never known before the predominance of high- cast brahin in the Nationalist movement explains the opposition of many low cast Hindus to Indian home rule so great is the low cast fear of losing their present protection under the British Raj and of

Being subjected to the domination of a high cast Brahman oligarchy that in recent years they have formed an association known as the namasudra led by well-known persons like Dr n 200000 And1 the namasudra points out what might happen by citing the brahminic pressure which occurs even in such political

Activity as already exists for example in many elections the brahin have terrorized low cast voters by threatening to Outcast all who should not vote the Brahman ticket thus making them Paras Untouchables with no rights Hindu Society such protests against home rule from large sections of the Indian population gave pause even to many

English students of the problem who had become convinced of Home Rule’s theoretical desirability and of course they greatly strengthened the arguments of those numerous Englishmen particularly Anglo Indians who asserted that India was as yet unfit for self-government said one of these objectors in the round table the masses

Care not one wit for politics home rulle they do not understand they prefer the English district magistrate they only ask to remain in Eternal and Bine quesence they feel confidence in the Englishman because he has always shown himself the protector of the poor and because he is neither Hindu nor musulman

And has a reputation for honesty and Lord sidam in a detailed criticism of the monu Chelmsford proposals stated there are many defects in our system of government in India reforms are needed but they must be based solely upon considerations of the welfare of the masses of India as a

Whole if the policy of deliberately disturbing their contentment which the vice Roy and the Secretary of State have announced is carried out if through the whispering galleries of the East the word is passed that the only Authority that can maintain Law and Order and secure the gradual building up of an

Indian nation is weakening if as is proposed the great public services are emasculated then the fierce old animosities will break out aresh and assisted by a recrudescence of the reactionary forces of brahmanism they will within a few years bring to not the noblest work which the British race has ever accomplished

22 yet other English authorities on Indian Affairs asserted that the monu Chelmsford proposals were sound and must be enacted into law if the gravest perils were to be averted such were the opinions of men like Lionel Curtis is 203 and Sir Valentine cyol who stated it is of the utmost importance that there

Should be no unnecessary delay we have had object lessons enough as to the danger of procrastination and in India as elsewhere time is on the side of the troublemakers we cannot hope to reconcile Indian extremism what we can hope to do is to free from its Insidious influence all

That is best in Indian public Life by opening up a larger field of useful activity two 104 as a matter of fact the monague chelsford report was accepted as the basis of discussion by the British Parliament and at the close of the Year 1919 its recommendations were formally

Embodied in law unfortunately during the 18 months which elapsed between the publication of the report and its legal enactment the situation in India had darkened militant unrest had again raised its head and India was more Disturbed than it had been since 1909 for this there were several reasons in

The first place all those nationalist elements who were dissatisfied with the report began coting with the Revolutionary irreconcilables and encouraging them to Fresh terrorism perhaps in the hope of stampeding the British Parliament into wider concessions than the report had contemplated but there were other causes of a more General nature the year 1918

Was a black one for India the worldwide influenza epidemic hit India for particularly hard millions of persons being carried off by the Grim plague furthermore India was cursed with drought the crops failed and the Spectre of famine stalled through the land the year 1919 saw an even worse drought

Involving an almost record famine by the late summer it was estimated that millions of persons had died of hunger with Millions more on the verge of starvation and on top of all came an Afghan war throwing the North West border into tumult and further unsettling the already Restless

Mohammadan element the upshot was a wave of unrest revealing itself in an epidemic of riots terrorism and sedici activity which gave the British authorities serious concern so critical appeared the situation that a special commission was appointed to investigate conditions and the report handed in by its chairman Justice rolat painted a

Depressing picture of the strength of revolutionary unrest the report stated that not only had a considerable number of young men of the educated upper classes become involved in the promotion of anarchical movements but that the ranks were filled with men belonging to other social orders including the military and that there was clear

Evidence of successful tampering with the Loyalty of the Native troops to combat this growing disaffection the rollat committee recommended fresh repressive legislation impressed with the gravity of the committee’s report the government of India form formulated a project of law officially known as the anarchical and revolutionary Crimes Act though

Generally known as the roll at bill by its Provisions the authorities were endowed with greatly increased Powers such as the right to search premises and arrest persons on mere suspicion of seditious activity without definite evidence of the same the rollat bill at once aroused bitter nationalist opposition not merely extremists but

Many moderates condemned it as a backward step and is a provoker of fresh trouble when the bill came up for debate in the Indian legislative body the Imperial legislative Council all the native members save one opposed it and the bill was finally passed on Strictly racial Lines by the votes of the

Appointed English majority however the government considered the bill an absolute prerequisite to the successful maintenance of order and it was passed into law in the spring of 1919 this brought matters to a head the national ists stigmatizing the rollat law as the Black Cobra act were unmeasured in their

Condemnation the extremists engineered a campaign of militant protest and decreed the date of the Bill’s enactment April 6th 1919 as a national humiliation day on that day monster Mass meetings were held at which nationalist orators made seditious speeches and inflamed the passions of the multitude humiliation day was in fact

The beginning of the worst wave of unrest since the Mutiny for the next 3 months a veritable epidemic of rioting and terrorism swept India particularly the northern provinces officials were assassinated English civilians were murdered and there was wholesale destruction of property at some moments it looked as

Though India were on the verge of Revolution and Anarchy however the government stood firm violence was countered with Stern repression rius mobs were mowed down wholesale by rifle and machine gun fire or were scattered by bombs dropped from low-flying airlanes the most noted of these occurrences was the so-called am ritzer

Massacre where British troops fired into a seditious Mass meeting killing 500 and wounding 1,500 persons in the end the government mastered the situation order was restored the seditious leaders were swept into custody and the Revolutionary agitation was once more driven Underground the enactment of the monague Chelmsford Reform Bill by the British

Parliament toward the close of the year did much to relax the tension and assuage discontent though the situation of India was still far from normal the deplorable events of the earlier part of 1919 had roused animosities which were by no means allayed the Revolutionary elements though driven underground were

More bitter and uncompromising than ever while opponents of home rule were confirmed in their conviction that India could not be trusted and that any relaxation of autocracy must spell Anarchy this was obviously not the best mental atmosphere in which to apply the compromises of the monu Chelmsford reforms in fact the extremists were

Determined that they should not be given a fair trial regarding the reforms as a snare which must be avoided at all costs recognizing that armed rebellion was still impossible at least for the present the extremists evolved the idea known as Nono operation this was in fact a gigantic boycott of

Everything British not merely were the new voters urged to stay away from the polls and thus elect no members to the proposed legislative bodies but lawyers and litigants were to avoid the courts taxpayers refus to pay imposts workmen to go on strike shopkeepers to refuse to buy or sell british-made goods and even

Pupils to leave the schools and colleges this wholesale outcasting of everything British would make the English in India a new sort of pariah Untouchables the British government and the British community in India would be left in absolute isolation and the Raj rendered unworkable would have to capitulate to the extremist demands for complete

Self-government such was the NoNo operation idea and the idea soon found an able exponent a certain MK Gandhi who had long possessed a reputation for personal sanctity and thus inspired the Hindu masses with that peculiar religious fervor which certain types of Indian Aesthetics have always known how to arouse Gandhi’s propaganda can be

Judged by the following extract from one of his speeches it is as amazing as it is humiliating that less than 100,000 white men should be able to rule 35 million Indians they do so somewhat undoubtedly by force but more by securing our cooperation in a thousand ways and making us more and more

Helpless and dependent on them as time goes forward let us not mistake reformed councils legislator more Law Courts and even governorships for real Freedom or power they are but subtler methods of emasculation the British cannot rule Us by mere force and so they resort to all means honorable and dishonorable in

Order to retain their hold on India they want India’s billions and they want India’s Manpower for their imperialistic greed if we refuse to supply them with men and money we achieve our goal namely sarage 205 equality manliness the extreme hopes of the NoNo operation movement have not been realized the monague Chelmsford reforms

Have been put in operation and the first elections under them were held at the beginning of 1921 but the Outlook is far from Bright the very light vote cast at the elections revealed the effect of the NoNo operation movement which showed itself in count less other ways from

Strikes in factories to strikes of school children India Today is in a turmoil of unrest and this unrest is not merely political it is social as well the vast economic changes which have been going on in India for the past half century have profoundly disorganized Indian Society these changes will be

Discussed in later chapters the point to be here noted is that the extremist leaders are capitalizing social discontent and are un questionably in touch with Bolshevik Russia meanwhile the older factors of disturbance are by no means eliminated the recent atrocious Massacre of dissident seek pilgrims by Orthodox seek Fanatics and the three cornered

Riots between Hindus mohammadans and Native Christians which broke out about the same time in Southern India reveal the hidden fires of religious and racial fanaticism that smolder beneath the surface of Indian life the truth of the matter is that India is today a Battleground between the forces of evolutionary and revolutionary change it

Is an anxious and a troubled time the old order is obviously passing and the New Order is not yet fairly in sight the hour is Big with possibilities of both good and evil and no one can confidently predict the outcome footnotes 192 According to some historians this race mixture occurred

Almost at once the theory is that the Aryan conquerors who outside the Northwestern region had very few of their own women with them took dravidian women as wives or concubines and legitimatized their Half Breed children The Offspring of the conquerors both pure Bloods and mixed Bloods coalescing into a closed cast further infiltration

Of dravidian blood was thus prevented but Aryan race Purity had been destroyed 193 Sur bamp Fila Fuller studies of Indian life and sentiment p 40 London 1910 for other discussions of cast and its effects CW Archer India and the future London 1918 Seri Kyo Indian unrest London 1910 Reverend J Morrison

New ideas in India a study of social political and religious developments Edinburgh 1906 sir H rley the people of India London 1908 also writings of the namasudra leader Dr n previously quoted n s Niel Singh India’s Untouchables contemporary review March 1913 194 for the Nationalist movement C

Archer kyule and Morrison Supra also sir hjs cotton India in transition London 1904 JN farquar modern religious movement in India New York 1915 sir ww Hunter the India of the queen and other essays London 1903 WS Lily India and its problems London 1902 sery love it a history of the Indian nationalist

Movement London 1920 J Ramsey McDonald the government of India London 1920 sir T Morrison Imperial rule in India London 1,899 JD re the real India London 1908 Serge stry India its Administration and progress fourth edition London 1911 K vasal the future government of India London 1918 195 I have already discussed this

Golden Age tendency in chapter 3 for more or less extremist Indian viewpoints CA Kumar Swami the dance of civa New York 1918 H Matra Hinduism the world ideal London 1916 bipin Shandra palal the forces behind the unrest in India contemporary review February 1910 also various writings of L Pat Ry especially the area

Samaj London 1915 and Young India New York 1916 196 for Indian muhammadan points of view mostly anti-hindu chh the AA con India in transition London 1918 esab Bookshare essays Indian and Islamic London 1912 sir Sayad Ahmed the present state of Indian politics alahabad 1,888 Sayad SAR Ali Khan the unrest in India Bombay

1907 also his India of today Bombay 1908 197 this attitude of the depressed classes especially as revealed in the namasudra association has already been discussed in chapter 3 and will be further touched upon later in this present chapter 198 regarding the Indian native princes C Archer and Cairo

Supra also J pollen native States and Indian home rule Asiatic review January 1st 1917 the Maharaja of babil advice to the Indian aristocracy Madras 1905 articles by Sir dbar and Sir F young husband in the Empire and the century London 1905 199 a good Symposium of extremist

Comment is contained in kyule Supra also cjd re the real India London 1908 series of extremist articles in the open court March 1917 a good sample of extremist literature is the Fairly well-known pamphlet India’s loyalty to England 1915 200 discussed in the preceding chapter 2001 quoted in chapter 4 202

Lord sdam India contemporary review November 1918 four similar criticisms of the monague Chelmsford proposals CGM chzn India under experiment London 1918 the first stage towards Indian Anarchy spectator December 20th 1919 203 Lionel Curtis letters to the people of India on responsible government already quoted at the end of

Chapter 4 204 servi kyol India in travail Edinburgh review July 1918 205 I.E self-government in the extremist sense practically Independence chapter 12 economic change one of the most interesting phenomena of modern world history is the two-fold conquest of the east by the West the word Conquest is usually employed in a

Political sense and calls up visions of battled armies subduing foreign lands and lording it over distant peoples such political conquests in the orient did of course occur and we have already seen how during the past Century the decrepit states of the near and Middle East fell

An easy prey to the armed might of the European powers but what is not so generally realized is the fact that this political Conquest was paralleled by an economic Conquest perhaps even more complete and probably destined to produce changes of an even more profound and enduring care character the root

Cause of this economic Conquest was the Industrial Revolution just as the Voyages of Columbus and de gave Europe the Strategic Mastery of the ocean and thereby the political Mastery of the world so the technical inventions of the later 18th century which inaugurated the Industrial Revolution gave Europe the

Economic Mastery of the world these inventions in fact heralded a new age of Discovery this time into the Realms of science the results were if possible more momentous even than those of the age of geographical Discovery three centuries before they gave our race such increased Mastery over the resources of

Nature that the ensuing transformation of economic life swiftly and utterly transformed the face of things this transformation was indeed unprecedented in the world’s history hither to man’s material progress had been a gradual Evolution with the exception of gunpowder he had tapped no new s sources of material energy since very ancient

Times the horsedrawn mail coach of our great-grandfathers was merely a logical elaboration of the horsedrawn Egyptian chariot the wind-driven Clipper ship traced its line unbroken to uls’s latine bark Before Troy while industry still relied on the brawn of man and Beast or upon the simple action of wind and waterfall suddenly all was

Changed steam electricity petrol the herzan wave harnessed Nature’s hidden Powers conquered distance and shrunk the terrestrial Globe to the measure of human hands man entered a new material world differing not merely in degree but in kind from that of previous generations when I say man I mean so far

As the 19th century was concerned the white man of Europe and its racial settlements overseas it was the white man’s brain which had conceived all this and it was the white man alone who had first reaped the benefits the two outstanding features of the New Order were the rise of machine industry

With its incalculable acceleration of mass production and the correlative development of cheap and Rapid transportation both these factors favored a prodigious increase in economic power and wealth in Europe since Europe became the workshop of the world in fact during the 19th century Europe was transformed from a semi-

Rural continent into a swarming Hive of Industry gorged with Goods C capital and Men pouring forth its wees to the remotest corners of the earth and drawing then fresh stores of raw material for new fabrication and exchange such was the industrially revolutionized West which confronted an East as backward and stagnant in

Economics as it was in politics and the Art of War in fact the East was virtually devoid of either industry or business as we understand these terms today economically the East was on an agricultural basis the economic unit being the self-supporting semi-isolated Village Oriental industries were handicrafts carried on by relatively

Small numbers of Artisans usually working by and for themselves their products while often Exquisite in quality were largely luxurious and were always produced by such slow Antiquated methods that their quantity was limited and their market price relatively High despite very low wages therefore Asiatic products not only could not compete in

The World Market with European and American machine-made mass-produced articles but were hard- hit in their home markets as well this Oriental inability to compete with Western industry arose not merely from methods of production but also from other factors such as the mentality of the workers and the scarcity of capital

Throughout the near and Middle East economic life rested on the principle of status the Western economic principles of contract and competition were virtually unknown agriculturalists and Artisans followed blindly in the footsteps of their fathers there was no competition no stimulus for improvement no change in customary wages no desire

For a better and more comfortable living the industries were stereotyped The Apprentice merely imitated his master and rarely thought of introducing new implements or new methods of manufacture instead of working for profit and advancement Men followed in hereditary calling usually hallowed by religious sanctions handed down from father to son through many generations

Each calling possessing its own unchanging ideals its zealously guarded craft Secrets the few Bolder more enterprising spirits who might have ventured to break the iron bands of custom and tradition were as stopped by lack of capital fluid investment Capital easily mobilized and ready to pour into an Enterprise of demonstrable utility

And profit simply did not exist to the Oriental whether Prince or peasant money was regarded not as a source of profit or a medium of exchange but as a store of value to be hoarded intact against a rainy day the East has been known for

Ages as a sink of the precious metals in India alone the value of the gold silver and jewels hidden in strong boxes buried in the Earth or hanging about the necks of women must run into billions says a recent writer on India I had the privilege of being taken through the

Treasure vaults of one of the wealthiest maharajas I could have plunged my arm to the shoulder in great silver caskets filled with diamonds pearls emeralds rubies the walls were studded with hooks and on each pair of hooks rested Gold Bars 3 to 4 ft long and 2 in across I

Stood by a great Cask of diamonds and picking up a handful let them drop slowly from between my fingers sparkling and glistening like drops of water in sunlight there are some 700 native States and the rulers of everyone has his treasure vaults on a more or less elaborate scale besides these every

Zi and and every Indian of high or low degree who can save anything wants to have it by him in actual metal he distrusts this new fangled paper currency that they try to pass off on him sometimes he beats his coins into bangal for his wives and sometimes he

Hides money behind a loose brick or under a flat stone in the bottom of the oven or he goes out and digs a little hole and buries it 206 remember that this description is of present day India after More Than A Century of British rule and not withstanding a permeation of Western

Ideas which as we shall presently see has produced momentous modifications in the native point of view remember also that this hoarding propensity is not peculiar to India but is shared by the entire Orient we can then realize the utter lack of capital for investment purposes in the east of a hundred years

Ago especially when we remember that political insecurity and religious prohibitions of the lending of money at interest stood in the way of such far-sighted individuals as might have been inclined to employ their hoarded wealth for productive purposes there was indeed one outlet for financial activity usury and therein

Virtually all the scant fluid capital of the old Orient was employed but such Capital lent not for productive Enterprise but for luxury profligacy or incompetence was a destructive rather than a creative force and merely intensified the prejudice against capital of any kind such was the economic life of the Orient 100 years

Ago it is obvious that this archaic order was utterly unable to face the tremendous competition of the industrialized West everywhere the flood of cheap Western machine made mass produced Goods began invading Eastern lands driving the native Wares before them the way in which an ancient Oriental handicraft like the Indian

Textiles was literally annihilated by the destructive competition of Lancer Cottons is only one of many similar instances to be sure some Oriental writers contend that this Triumph of Western manufacturers was due to political rather than economic reasons and Indian nationalists site British governmental activity in favor of the

Lanier cotton above mentioned as the sole cause for the destruction of the Indian textile handicrafts but such arguments appear to be vicious British official action may have hastened the Triumph of British industry in India but that Triumph was inevitable in the long run the best proof is the

Way in which the textile crafts of independent Oriental countries like turkey and Persia were similarly ruined by Western competition a further proof is the undoubted fact that Oriental peoples taken as a whole have bought Western manufactured products in preference to their own handmade Wares to many westerners this has been a mystery such

Persons cannot understand how the orientals could buy the cheap shoddy products of the West manufactured especially for the Eastern Market in preference to their native Wares of better quality and vastly greater Beauty the answer however is that the average Oriental is not an art connoisseur but a

Poor man living perilously close to the margin of starvation he not only wants but must buy things cheap and the wide price margin is the deciding factor of course there is also the element of novelty besides Goods which merely replace articles he has always used the West has introduced many

New articles whose utility or Charm are irresistible I have already mentioned the way in which the sewing machine and the kerosene lamp have swept the Orient from end to end and there are many other instances of a similar nature the permeation of Western industry has in fact profoundly modified every phase of

Oriental economic life New Economic wants have been created standards of living have been raised Cannons of taste have been altered says a lifelong American student of the Orient the knowledge of modern inventions and of other foods and articles has created new wants the Chinese peasant is no longer

Content to burn bean oil he wants kerosene the desire of the I adic to possess foreign lamps is equaled only by his passion for foreign clocks the ambitious Syrian scorns the mud roof of his ancestors and will be satisfied only with the bright red tiles imported from France everywhere articles of foreign

Manufacturer are in demand knowledge increases wants and the Oriental is acquiring knowledge he demands a 100 things today that his grandfather never heard of 207 everywhere it is the same story an Indian economic writer though a bitter enemy of Western industrialism bems the fact that the Artisans are losing their

Occupations and are turning to agriculture the cheap kerosene oil from Baku or New York threatens the oil man’s 28 existence brass and copper which have been used for vessels from time immemorial are threatened by Cheap enameled ironware imported from Europe there is also Parry pasu a transformation of the taste of the

Consumers they abandon gir for Crystal sugar home woven cloths are now replaced by manufactured cloths for being too coarse all local Industries are attacked and many have been destroyed Villages that for centuries followed customary practices are brought into contact with the world’s markets all on a sudden for

Steam ships and Railways which have established the connection have been built in so short an interval as hardly to allow breathing time to the Village which slumbered so long under the Dominion of custom thus the sudden introduction of competition into an economic unit which had from time immemorial followed custom has wrought a

Mighty change 209 this Mighty change was due not merely to the influx of Western Goods but also to an equally momentous influx of Western Capital the opportunities for profitable investment were so numerous that Western Capital soon poured in streams into Eastern lands virtually devoid of fluid capital of its own the

Orient was bound to have recourse to Western capital for the initiation of all economic activity in the modern sense Railways mines large-scale agriculture of the plantation type and many other undertakings thus came into being most notable of all was the founding of numerous manufacturing establishments from North Africa to

China and the consequent growth of genuine Factory towns where the were of machinery and the smoke of tall chimneys proclaimed that the East was adopting the industrial life of the West the momentous social consequences of this industrialization of the Orient will be treated in subsequent chapters in the present chapter we will confine

Ourselves to a consideration of its economic side furthermore this book limited as it is to the near and Middle East cannot deal with industrial developments in China and Japan the reader should however always bear in mind Far Eastern developments which in in the main run parallel to those which

We shall here discuss these industrial Innovations were at first Pure Western transplanting set in eastern soil initiated by Western Capital they were wholly controlled and managed by Western brains Western Capital could not venture to entrust itself to orientals with their lack of the modern industrial Spirit their habits of squeeze and

Nepotism their lust for quick returns and their incapacity for sustained business team play as time passed however the success of Western undertaking so impressed orientals that the more forward-looking among them were ready to risk their money and to acquire the technique necessary for Success at the close of chapter 2 I describ the

Development of modern business types in the Muslim world and the same is true of the non-muslim populations of India in India there were several elements such as the parses and the Hindu Banas or money lenders whose pre activities in Commerce or Usery predisposed them to financial and Industrial activity in the

Modern sense from their ranks have chiefly sprung the present day native business communities of India exemplified by the Jud and textile factories of Kolkata and Bombay and the great Tata Iron Works of Bengal undertakings financed by native capital and wholly under native control of course beside these successes there have been many lamentable

Failures nevertheless there seems to be no doubt that Western industrialism is ceasing to be an exotic and is rooting itself firmly in eastern soil 210 the combined result of Western and Eastern Enterprise has been as already stated the rise of important industrial centers at various points in the orient

In Egypt a French writer remarks both banks of the Nile are lined with factories sugar refineries and cotton Mills whose beling chimneys Tower above the mud Huts of the fellas 2011 and Sir Theodore Morrison says of India in the city of Bombay the industrial revolution has already been accomplished Bombay is a modern

Manufacturing City where both the dark and the bright side of modern industrialism strike the eye Bombay has insanitary slums where overcrowding is as great and evil as in any European city she has a proletariat which works long hours amid the DIN and were of Machinery she also has her millionaires

Whose princely Charities have adorned her streets with beautiful buildings signs of lavish wealth and let me add culture and taste in Bombay astonish the visitor from the Inland Districts The Brown Villages and never-ending Fields with which he has hither to been familiar are the India which is passing

Away Bombay is the pressage of the future 212 the juxa position of vast natural resources and a limitless supply of cheap labor has encouraged the most ambitious hopes in Orient Minds some orientals look to a combination of Western money and Eastern Manpower expressed by an Indian economic

Writer in the formula English money and Indian labor are the two cheapest things in the world 213 others more ambitiously dream of industrializing the East entirely by native effort to the exclusion and even to the detriment of the West this view was well set forth

Some Years Ago by a Hindu who wrote in a leading Indian periodical 200 14 in one sense the Orient is really menacing the west and so Earnest and open-minded is Asia that no pretense or apology whatever is made about it the easterner has thrown down the industrial Gauntlet

And from now on Asia is destined to witness a progressively intense trade Warfare The Accidental scrambling to retain his hold on the markets of the East and the Oriental endeavoring to beat him in a battle in which here to before he has been an easy Victor in competing with the accidental

Commercialist the Oriental has awakened to a dynamic realization of the futility of pitting unimproved machinery and methods against modern methods and appliances casting aside his former sense of self-complacency he is studying The Sciences and arts that have given the West its material Prosperity he is putting the results of

His investigations to practical use as a rule recasting the oxidal methods to suit his peculiar needs and in some instances improving upon them this statement of the spirit of the Orient industrial Awakening is confirmed by many white observers at the very moment when the above article was penned an American

Economic writer was making a study tour of the Orient of which he reported the real cause of Asia poverty lies in just two things the failure of Asiatic governments to educate their people and the failure of the people to increase their productive capacity by the use of Machinery ignorance and lack of

Machinery are responsible for Asia poverty knowledge and modern tools are responsible for America’s Prosperity but continues this writer we must watch out Asia now realizes these facts and is doing much to remedy the situation hence we must face in ever increasing degree the Rivalry of Awakening peoples who are strong with

The strength that comes from struggle with poverty and hardship and who have set themselves to master and apply all our secrets in the coming world’s struggle for industrial supremacist and for racial Readjustment 215 another American Observer of Asiatic economic conditions reports all Asia is being permeated with modern industry and present day

Mechanical progress 216 and Sir Theodore Morrison concludes regarding India’s economic future India’s industrial transformation is near at hand the obstacles which have hither to prevented the adoption of modern methods of manufacturer have been removed means of Transport have been spread over the face of the whole country capital for the

Purchase of machinery and erection of factories may now be borrowed on easy terms mechanics engineers and business managers may be hired from Europe to train the future captains of Indian industry in English a Common Language has been found in which to transact business with all the provinces of India

And with a great part of the Western World security from foreign Invasion and internal commotion justifies the Inception of large Enterprises all the conditions are favorable for a great reorganization of Industry which when successfully accomplished will bring about an increase hither to undreamed of an India’s annual output of wealth

217 the factor usually relied upon to overcome the orient’s handicaps of inexperience and inexpertness’ as examples of industrial conditions in the near and Middle East writing of Egypt in 1908 the English Economist hn brailford says there was then no Factory act in Egypt there are all over the country jinning Mills which

Employ casual labor to prepare raw cotton for export during four or five months of the year the wages were low from 712d to one0 D 15 to 20 cents a day for an adult and 60 12 cents for a child children and adults alike work sometimes

For 12 usually for 15 and on occasion even for 16 or 18 hours a day in the height of the Season even the children were put on night shifts of 12 hours 218 in India conditions are about the same the first thorough investigation of Indian industry was made in 1907 by a

Factory Labor Commission and the following are some of the data published in its report in the cotton Mills of Bombay the hours regularly worked ran from 13 to 14 hours in the Jud Mills of Kolkata the operatives usually worked 15 hours cotton jinning factories required their employees to work 17 and 18 hours

A day rice and flour Mills 20 to 22 hours and an extreme case was found in a printing Works where the men had to work 22 hours a day for seven consecutive days at as to wages an adult male operative working from 13 to 15 hours a

Day received from 15 to 20 rupees a month $5 to $635 child labor was very prevalent children six and 7 years old working halftime in many cases 8 hours a day as a result of this report legislation was passed by the Indian government bettering working conditions somewhat

Especially for women and children but in 19 194 the French Economist Albert Meen after a careful study reported factory conditions not greatly changed the factory acts systematically evaded hours very long and wages extremely low in Bombay men were earning from 10 cents to 20 cents per day the highest wages being

30 cents for women and children the maximum was 10 cents per day 219 with such extraordinarily low wages and long hours of labor it might at First Sight seem as though given adequate capital and up-to-date Machinery the Orient could not only drive accidental products from Eastern markets but might invade Western markets

As well this indeed has been the fear of many Western writers nearly 3/4 of a century ago goo prophesied an industrial invasion of Europe from Asia 220 and of late years economists like hn brailford have warned against an immigration of Western Capital to the tempting lure of factory conditions in eastern lands

221 nevertheless so far as the near and Middle East is concerned nothing like this has as yet materialized China to be sure May yet have unpleasant surprises in store for the West 222 but neither the Muslim World nor India have developed Factory labor with the skill stamina and aciducip the industrial workers of

Europe and America in India for example despite a swarming and poverty stricken population the factories are unable to recruit an adequate or Dependable labor Supply says M Meen with such long hours and low wages it might be thought that Indian industry would be a formidable competitor of the West this is not so

The reason is the bad quality of the work the poorly paid coolies are so badly fed and so weak that it takes at least three of them to do the work of one European also the indan indan workers lack not only strength but also skill attention and liking for their work an

Indian of the people will do anything else in preference to becoming a factory operative the factories thus get only the drgs of the working class the workers come to the factories and mines as a last resort they leave as soon as they can return to their prior occupations or find a more remunerative

Employment thus the factories can never count on a regular labor Supply would hire wages remedy this many employers say no as soon as the workers got a little ahead they would quit either temporarily till their money was spent or permanently for some more congenial calling 223 these statements are fully confirmed

By an Indian economic writer who says one of the greatest drawbacks to the establishment of large Industries in India is the scarcity and inefficiency of Labor cheap labor where there is no physical stamina mental discipline and skill behind it tends to be costly in the end the Indian laborer is mostly

Uneducated he is not in touch with his employers or with his work the laboring population of the towns is a flitting diletante population 224 thus Indian industry despite its very considerable growth has not come up to early expectations as the official yearbook very frankly States India in short is a

Country rich in raw materials and in industrial possibilities but poor in manufacturing accomplishments 225 in fact to some observers India’s industrial future seems far from bright as a competent English student of Indian conditions recently wrote some years ago it seemed possible that India might by a rapid assimilation of Western knowledge

And Technical skill adapt for her own conditions the methods of modern indust history and so reach an approximate economic level some even now threaten the Western World with a vision of the vast populations of China and India rising up with skilled organization vast resources and comparatively cheap labor

To impoverish the west to the present writer this is air bogy the Peril is of a very different kind instead of a growing approximation he sees a growing disparity for every step India takes toward mechanical efficiency the West takes two when India is beginning to use bicycles and Motorcars not to make them

The West is perfecting the airplane that is merely symbolic the war as we know has speeded up mechanical invention and produced a population of mechanics but India has stood comparatively still it is up to now overwhelmingly medieval a country of domestic industry and handicrafts mechanical Power even of the

Simplest has not yet been applied to its Chief industry agriculture yet the period of ag- long isolation is over and India can never go back to it nevertheless the gap between East and West is widening what is to be the outcome for her 300 Millions we are

In danger in the east of seeing the worst evils of commercialism developed on an enormous scale with the vast population of India the victims of seeing the East become a world slum two 226 whether or not this pessimistic Outlook is Justified certain it is that not merely India but the entire Orient

Is in a stage of profound transition and transition periods are always painful times we have been considering the new industrial proletariat of the towns but the older social classes are affected in very similar fashion the old type handy Craftsman and small Merchant are obviously menaced by modern industrial

And business methods and the peasant masses are in little better shape it is not merely a change in technique but a fundamental difference in outlook on life that is involved the life of the old Orient while there was much want and hardship was an easygoing life with

Virtually no thought of such matters As Time efficiency output and turnover the merchant sat cross-legged in his little booth amid his small stock of wees passively waiting for trade chaffering interminably with his customers annoyed rather than pleased if brisk business came his way the Artisan usually worked by and for himself

Keeping his own hours and knocking off whenever he chose the peasant arose with the dawn but around noon he and his animals lay down for a long nap and slept until in the cool of afternoon they awoke stretched themselves and comfortably and casually went to work again to such people the speed system

And discipline of our economic life are painfully repugnant and adaptation can at best be affected only very slowly and under the compulsion of the direst necessity meanwhile they suffer from the competition of those better equipped in the economic battle Sir William Ramsey paints a striking picture of the way in

Which the Turkish population of Asia Minor from landlords and Merchants to simple peasants have been going downhill for the last half century under the economic pressure not merely of westerners but of the Native Christian elements Armenians and Greeks who had partially assimilated Western business ideas and methods under the Old State of

Things he says there was in Asia Minor no economic progress and no Mercantile development things went on in the oldfashioned year after year such simple business as was carried on was inconsistent with the highly developed Western business system and Western Civilization but it was not oppressive to the people there were no large

Fortunes there was no opportunity for making a great Fortune it was impossible for one man to force into his service the minds and the work of a large number of people and so to create a great organization out of which he might make big profits there was a very large

Number of small men doing business on a small scale 227 Sir William Ramsey then goes on to describe the shattering of this archaic economic life by modern business methods to the consequent impoverishment of all classes of the unadaptable Turkish population how the agricultural classes peasants and landlords alike are suffering from changing economic

Conditions is well exemplified by the recent history of India says the French writer Chay an authoritative student of Indian problems for the last half century large fractions of the Agricultural classes are being entirely despoiled of their lands or reduced to honorous tencies on the other hand new classes

Are rising and taking their place both riots and zandars 228 are involved the old type nobility has not Advanced with the times it remains idle and prodigal while the peasant Proprietors burdened by the traditions of many centuries are likewise improvident and ignorant on the other hand the economic conditions of British India are

Producing capitalists who seek employment for their wealth a conflict between them and the old landholders was predestined and the result was inevitable wealth goes to the cleverest and the land must pass into the hands of new Masters to the great indignation of the Agricultural classes a portion of

Whom will be reduced to the position of farm laborers 229 the Hindu Economist Mukerji thus depicts the disintegration and decay of the Indian village New Economic ideas have now begun to influence the minds of the villagers some are compelled to leave their occupations on account of foreign competition but more are leaving

Their hereditary occupations of their own accord the brahans go to the cities to seek government posts or professional careers the middle classes also leave their Villages and get scattered all over the country to earn a living The Peasants also leave their ancestral acres and form a class of landless agricultural laborers The Villages

Drained of their best blood stagnate and Decay the movement from the village to the city is in fact not only working a complete revolution in the habits and ideals of our people but its economic consequences are far more serious than are ordinarily supposed it has made our middle classes helplessly subservient to

Employment and service and has also killed the independence of our peasant Proprietors it has jeopardized our food supply and is fraught with the gravest Peril not only to our handicrafts but also to our National Industry agriculture 230 happily there are signs that in Indian agriculture at least the

Transition period is working itself out and that conditions May soon be on the men both the British government and the native princes have bed with one another in spreading Western agricultural ideas and methods and since the Indian peasant has proved much more receptive than has the Indian Artisan a more intelligent

Type of farmer is developing better able to keep step with the times a good instance is the growth of rural cooperative credit societies first introduced by the British government in 1904 there were in 1915 more than 177,000 such associations with a total of $ 825,000 members and a working capital of nearly $30

Million these agricultural societies make loans for the purchase of stock fod seed manure sinking of Wells purchase of Western agricultural machinery and in emergencies personal maintenance in the districts where they have established themselves they have greatly diminished the plague of usury practiced by the Bas or Village money lenders lowering the

Rate of interest from its former crushing range of 20 to 75 per Center to a range averaging from 9 to 18 per Center of course such phenomena are as yet merely exceptions to a very dreary rule nevertheless they all Point toward a brighter Morrow 231 but this brighter agricultural

Morrow is obviously far off and in Industry it seems to be farther still meanwhile the changing Orient is full of suffering and discontent what wonder that many orientals ascribe their troubles not to the process of economic transition but to the political control of European governments and the economic exploitation of Western Capital the

Result is agitation for emancipation from Western economic as well as Western political control at the end of chapter 2 we examine the movement among the muhammadan peoples known as economic pen islamism a similar movement has arisen among the Hindus of India the so-called swadesi movement the suedes hiss declare that India’s

Economic ills are almost entirely due to the drain of India’s wealth to England and other Western lands they therefore Advocate a boycott of English Goods until Britain grants India self-government whereupon they propos to erect protective tariffs for Indian product curb the activities of British Capital replace High salaried English officials

By Natives and thereby keep India’s wealth at home 232 an analysis of these suedes his arguments however reveals them as inadequate to account for India’s ills which are due far more to the general economic trend of the times than to any specific defects of the British connection British governance and

British Capital do cost money but their undoubted efficiency in producing peace order security and development must be considered as offsets to the higher costs which Native Rule and Native Capital would impose as Sir Theodore Morrison Well says the advantages which the British Navy and British credit

Confer on India are a liberal offset to her expenditure on pensions and gratuities to her English servants India deres a pecuniary Advantage from her connection with the British Empire the answer then which I give to the question what economic equivalent does does India get for foreign payments is this India

Gets the equipment of modern industry and she gets an Administration favorable to economic Evolution cheaper than she could provide it herself 233a comparison with Japan’s much more costly defense budgets inferior credit and higher interest charges on both public and private loans is enlightening on this point in fact some Indians

Themselves admit the fallacy of suedes his arguments as one of the remarks the so-called economic drain is nonsense most of the misery of late years is due to the rising cost of living a worldwide phenomenon and in proof of this he cites conditions in other Oriental countries

Especially Japan 234 as warm a friend of the Indian people as the British labor leader Ramsey McDonald States one thing is quite evident a tariff will not reestablish the old hand industry of India nor help to revive Village handicrafts Factory and machine production native to India itself will throttle them as

Effectively as that of laner and Burmingham has done in the past 235 even more trenant are the criticisms formulated by the Hindu writer pram aath Bose 236 the drain says Mr Bose is ruining India but would the home rule program as envisaged by most suedes hiss cure India’s economic ills under home

Rule these people would do the following things one substitute Englishmen for Indians in the administration two lovey protective duties on Indian products three Grant State encouragement to Indian Industries four disseminate technical education now how would these matters work out the substitution of Indian for British officials would not lessen the

Drain as much as most home rulers think the high-placed Indian officials who already exist have acquired European standards of living so the new official core would cost almost as much as the old also the influence of the example set by the well-to-do Indian officials would permeate Indian Society more

Largely than at present and the demand for Western articles would rise in proportion so commercial exploitation by foreigners would not only continue almost as if they were Europeans but might even increase as to a protective tariff it would attract European Capital to India which would exploit labor and

Skim the profits India has shown relatively little capacity for indigenous Industrial Development of course even at low wages many Indians might benefit yet such persons would form only a tithe of the millions now starving besides the fact that this industrialization would bring in many new social evils as to State

Encouragement of Industries this would bring in Western Capital even more than a protective ter with the results already stated as for technical education it is a worthy project but says Mr Bose I am afraid the movement is too late now within the last 30 years the westerners and the Japanese

Have gone so far ahead of us industrially that it has been yearly becoming more and more difficult to compete with them in fact Mr Bose goes on to criticize the whole system of Western education as applied to India neither higher nor lower education have proven panaceas higher education has led to the

Material prosperity of a small section of our community comprising a few thousands of well-to-do lawyers doctors and state servants but their occupations being of a more or less unproductive or parasitic character their well-being does not solve the problem of the Improvement of India as a whole on the contrary as

Their taste for imported articles develops in proportion to their prosperity they help to swell rather than diminish the economic drain from the country which is one of the chief causes of our impoverishment neither has Elementary education on the whole furthered the well-being of the multitude it has not

Enabled the cultivators to grow two blades where one grew before on the contrary it has distinctly diminished their efficiency by inculcating in the literate proletariat who constitute the cream of their class a strong distaste for their hereditary mode of living and their hereditary callings and an equally strong taste for shoddy superfluities

And Brahim fineries and for occupations of a more or less parasitic character they have directly or indirectly accelerated rather than the decadence of indigenous Industries and have thus helped to aggravate their own economic difficulties and those of the entire Community what they want is more food and new indiais with the government

In giving them what is called education that does not increase their food earning capacity but on the contrary Fosters in them tastes and habits which make them despise indigenous products and render them fit subjects for the exploitation of scheming capitalists mostly foreign political and economic causes could not have led to the

Extinction of indigenous industry if they had not been aided by change of taste fostered by the Western environment of which the so-called education is a powerful factor from all this Mr Bose concludes that none of the reforms advocated by the Home rulers would cure India’s ill

In fact the chances are she would be more inextricably entangled in the toils of Western Civilization without any adequate compensating advantage and the grip of the West would close on her to crush her more effectively therefore according to Mr Bose the only thing for India to do is

To turn her back on everything Western and plunge resolutely into the traditional past as he expresses it India salvation lies not in the region of politics TCS but outside it not in aspiring to be one of the great nations of the present day but in retiring to

Her humble position a position to my mind of solitary Grandeur and Glory not in going forward on the path of Western Civilization but in going back from it so far as practicable not in getting more and more entangled in the silk and meshes of its finely knit widespread net

But in escaping from it as far as possible such are the DraStic conclusions of Mr Bose conclusions shared to a certain extent by other Indian idealists like rendr toor but surely such projects however idealistic are the vinest fantasies whole peoples cannot arbitrarily cut themselves off from the rest of the world like isolated

Individuals for swearing society and setting up as anchorites in the jungle the time for hermit Nations has passed especially for a vast country like India set at the Crossroads of the East open to the Sea and already profoundly penetrated by Western ideas nevertheless such criticisms appealing as they do to

The strong strain of aeis latent in the Indian nature have affected many Indians who while unable to concur in the conclusions still try to evolve a middle term retaining everything congenial in the old system and grafting on a select set of Western Innovations accordingly these persons have elaborated programs for a new order

Built on a blend of Hindu mysticism cast Western industry and socialism 237 now these schemes are highly ingenious but they are not convincing their authors should remember the old adage that you cannot eat your cake and have it too when we realize the abysmal antithesis between the economic systems

Of the old East and the modern West any attempt to combine the most congenial points of both while estu their defects seems an attempt to reconcile irreconcilables and about as profitable as trying to square the circle as Los Dickinson wisely observes civilization is a whole its art its religion its way

Of life all hang together with its economic and Technical development I doubt whether a nation can pick and choose whether for instance the East can say we will take from the West its battleships its factories its medical science we will not take its social confusion its hurry and fatigue its

Ugliness its overemphasis on activity so I expect the East to follow us whether it like it or no into all these excesses and to go right through not round all that we have been through on its way to a higher phase of civilization 238 this seems to be substantially true

Judged by the overwhelming body of evidence the east in its contemporary process of transformation will follow the West avoiding some of our more patent mistakes perhaps but in the main proceeding along similar lines and as already stated this transformation is modifying every phase of Eastern life we have already examined the process at

Work in the religious political and economic phases to the social phase let us now turn footnotes 206 FB Fisher India silent Revolution p53 New York 1920 207 Reverend AJ Brown economic changes in Asia the century March 1904 28 I.E the purveyor of the Native vegetable oils 209 R mooker the

Foundations of Indian economics P5 London 1916 210 on these points C Fisher op CIT sir T Morrison the economic transition in India London 1911 sir Valentine kyol Indian unrest London 1910 DH dodwell economic transition in India Economic Journal December 1910 JP Jones the present situation in India Journal of race development July

1910 200 111 l berand l e Mirage Oriental Pages 20 to 21 Paris 1910 212 sir T Morrison the economic transition in India P 181 213 quoted by Jones Supra 214 the Indian review Madras 1910 215 Clarence po what the Orient can teach us world’s work July

1911 216 CS Cooper the modernizing of the Orient P5 New York 1914 217 Morrison op CIT p242 218 hn brailford the war of Steel and gold p114 London 1915 2198 Meen L and D AER AUD sociali p336 Paris 198 220 in his book TR ansn pers Paris 1,858 221 brailsford opci Pages

834 to 115 222 regarding conditions in China especially the extraordinary discipline and working ability of the see my Rising tide of color against white World Supremacy Pages 28 to 30 243 to 251 223 Meen opci p337 224 a Yousef Ali life and labor in India P 1883 London 190 7

225 India in the Years 1917 to 1918 official publication kataa 226 young and fers India in Conflict Pages 15-1 17 London 1920 227 sir WM Ramsey the Turkish peasantry of Anatolia quarterly review January 1918 220 8 I.E peasants and landlords 229 J CH administrative problems of British India p339 London 1910 English

Translation 230 mookery op CIT P9 231 on the Cooperative movement in India sea Fisher India silent Revolution Pages 54 to 58 rbaa Bank The Cooperative movement in India quarterly review April 1916 India’s economic problems both Agricultural and Industrial have been carefully studied by a large number of Indian economists some of whose writings

Are extremely interesting some of the most noteworthy books besides those of mooker G and YF Ali already quoted are da oroi poverty and un-british rule in India London 1901 romes D the economic history of India in the Victorian age London 1906 HH Goos the advancement of Industry Kolkata 1910

PC Ray the poverty problem in India Kolkata 1,895 mg renade essays on Indian economics Madras 1920 jenith sarker economics of British India Kolkata 1911 232 the best compendium of suedes his opinion is the volume containing pronouncements from all the swadesi leaders entitled The swadesi Movement a symposium Madras

1910 see also writings of the economists gosh mookery Ray and sarer above quoted as well as the various writings of the Nationalist agitator L Pat Ry a good summary interpretation is found found in M glotz Le movement swadesi Dan Lin review do Mo July 1913 233 sir T Morrison the economic

Transition in India Pages 240 to 241 also see sir Valentine cyule Indian unrest Pages 255 to 279 William Archer India and the future pages 31 to 157 234 Sayed SAR Ali Khan India of today p19 Bombay 1908 235 J Ramsey McDonald the government of India p133 London

1920 236 in the Hindustan review Kolkata 1917 237 good examples are found in the writings of mooker G and lpat Ry already quoted 238 G Los Dickinson an essay on the civilizations of India China and Japan Pages 84 to 85 London 1914 chapter 8 social change the momentous nature of the Contemporary

Transformation of the Orient is nowhere better attested than by the changes affected in the lives of its peoples that dynamic influence of the West which is modifying governmental forms political Concepts religious beliefs and economic processes is proving equally potent in the range of social phenomena in the third chapter of this volume we

Attempted a General survey of Western influence along all the above lines in the present chapter we shall attempt a detailed consideration of the social changes which are today taking place these social changes are very great albeit many of them may not be so apparent as the changes in other fields

So firm is the hold of custom and tradition on individual family and group life in the orient that superficial observers of the East are prone to assert that these matters are still substantially unaltered however pronounced may have been the changes on the external material side yet such is

Not the opinion of the closest students of the Orient and it is most emphatically not the opinion of orientals themselves these generally stress the Prof social changes which are going on and it is their judgments which seem to be the more correct to say that the East is advancing materially but

Standing still socially is to ignore the elemental truth that social systems are altered quite as much by material things as by abstract ideas who that looks below the surface can deny the social moral and civilizing power of railroads post offices and Telegraph lines does it mean nothing socially as well as materal

Materially that the East is adopting from the West a myriad Innovations weighty and trivial important and frivolous useful and painful does it mean nothing socially as well as materially that the prophet’s Tomb at Medina is lit by electricity and that picture postcards are sold outside the

Holy cabba at Mecca it may seem mere grotesque pancy that the muzin should ride to the mosque in a tram car or that the Muslim businessman should emerge from his Herm read his morning paper motor to an office equipped with a prayer rug and turn from his devotions to dictaphone and

Telephone yet why assume that his life is molded by mosque Haram and prayer rug and yet deny the things of the West a commensurate cheer in the shaping of his social existence now add to these tangible Innovations in tangible Novelties like scientific education accidental amusements and the partial

Emancipation of women and we begin to get some idea of the depth and scope of the social transformation which is going on in those parts of the Orient most open to Western influences the social transformation has attained notable proportions for more than a generation when the Hungarian orientalist vur

Returned to Constantinople in 1, 1896 after 40 years absence he stood amazed at the changes which had taken place albeit Constantinople was then subjected to the worst repression of the hamidan regime I had he writes continually to ask myself this question is it possible that these are my Turks of

1,856 and how can all these Transformations have taken place I was astonished at the aspect of the city at the stone buildings which had replaced the old wooden ones at the animation of the streets in which carriages and tram cars abounded whereas 40 years before only saddle animals were used and when

The strident shriek of the locomotive mingled with The Melancholy calls from the minettes all that I saw and heard seemed to me a living protest against the old adage Lobby dat fil Islam there is nothing to reform in Islam my astonishment became still greater when I entered the houses and was able to

Appreciate the people not only by their exteriors but still more by their manner of thought the affendi class 239 of Constantinople seemed to me completely transformed in its conduct Outlook and attitude toward foreigners 240 vur stresses the inward as well as outward evolution of the Turkish

Educated classes for he says not only in his outward aspect but also in his home life the present day Turk shows a strong inclination to the manners and habits of the West in such varied matters as Furniture table manners sex relations and so forth this is of the very greatest

Significance for a people may to be sure assimilate foreign influences in the intellectual field if it be persuaded of their utility and Advantage but it gives up with more difficulty customs and habits which are in the blood one cannot overestimate the numerous sacrifices which despite everything the Turks have

Made in this line I find all Turkish Society even the mes 241 penetrated with the necessity of a union with Western Civilization opinions May differ as to the method of assimilation some wish to impress on the foreign civiliz and National character others on the contrary are partisans of our

Intellectual culture such as it is and reprobate any kind of modification 242 most significant of all vur found even the secluded women of the harams those bullworks of obscurantism notably changed yes I repeat the life of women in Turkey seems to me to have been radically transformed in the last 40

Years and it cannot be denied that this transformation has been produced by internal conviction as much as by external pressure noting the spread of female education and the increasing share of women in reform movements vur remarks this is of vital importance for when women shall begin to act in the

Family as a factor of modern progress real reforms in society as well as in the state cannot fail to appear 243 in India a similar permeation of social life by westernism is depicted by the Muslim liberal Esa bshar albeit Mr bshar being an Insider lays greater emphasis upon the painful aspects of the

Inevitable transition process from old to new he is not unduly pessimistic for he recognizes that the age of transition is necessarily to a certain extent an age of laxity of morals indifference to religion superficial culture and gossiping levity these are passing ills which time itself will cure nevertheless

He does not minimize the critical aspects of the present situation which implies nothing less than the breakdown of the old social system the clearest result of this breakdown of our old system of domestic life and social Customs under the assault of European ideas he says is to be found in two

Directions in our religious beliefs and in our social life the old system with all its faults had many redeeming virtues today this old system narrow-minded but God-fearing has been replaced by a strange independence of thought and action reverence for age respect for our elders deference to the opinions of others are fast disappearing

Under the older system the head of the family was the sole guide and friend of its members his word had the force of law he was so to speak the custodian of the honor and Prestige of the family from this exalted position he is now dislodged and the most Junior member now

Claims equality with him 244 Mr bshar deplores the current wave of extravagance due to the wholesale adoption of European customs and modes of living what he asks has happened here in India we have adopted European costume European ways of living even the European vices of drinking and gambling

But none of their virtues this must be remedied we must learn at the feet of Europe but not at the sacrifice of our Eastern individuality but this is precisely what we have not done we have dabbled a little in English and European history and we have commenced to despise our

Religion our literature our history our traditions we have unlearned the lessons of our history and our civilization and in their place we have secured nothing solid and substantial to hold Society fast in the midst of endless changes in fine Destruction has done its work but the work of construction has not yet begun

245 like vur bukir lays strong emphasis on the increasing emancipation of women no longer regarded as mere childbearing machines the muhammadan women of India are getting educated day by day and now assert their rights though the PTA system 246 still prevails it is no longer that severe stringent and unreasonable

Seclusion of women which existed 50 years ago it is gradually relaxing and women are getting stepbystep rights and Liberties which must in course of time and in the complete emancipation of Eastern Womanhood 40 years ago women meekly submitted to neglect indifference and even harsh treatment from their

Husbands but such is the case no longer 247 these two descriptions of social conditions in the near and Middle East respectively enable one to get a fair idea of the process of change which is going on of course it must not be forgotten that both writers deal primarily with the educated upper

Classes of the large towns nevertheless the Len is working steadily downward and with every decade is affecting wider stra of the Native populations the spread of Western education in the East during the past few decades has been truly astonishing because it is the exact antithesis of the Oriental educational system the

Traditional education of the entire Orient from Morocco to China was a mere memorizing of sacred texts combined with exercises of religious devotion the muhammadan or Hindu student spent long years reciting to his master a holy man interminable passages from books which being written in classic Arabic or Sanskrit were unintelligible to him so

That he he usually did not understand a word of what he was saying no more deadening system for the intellect could possibly have been devised every part of the brain except the memory atrophied and the Wonder is that any intellectual initiative or original thinking ever appeared even today the old system

Persists and millions of young orientals are still wasting their time at this mind petrifying nonsense but alongside the old there has arisen a new system running the whole educational gamut for from kindergartens to universities where Oriental youth is being educated along Western lines these new type educational establishments are

Of every kind besides schools and universities giving a liberal education and fitting students for government service or the professions there are numerous technical schools turning out skilled agriculturists or Engineers while good normal schools assure a supply of teachers qualified to instruct coming student Generations both public and private

Effort furthers Western education in the East all the European governments have favored Western education in the lands under their control particularly the British in India and Egypt while various Christian Missionary bodies have covered the East with a network of schools and colleges also many Oriental governments like turkey and the native states of

India have made sincere efforts to spread Western education among their peoples 248 of course as in any new development the results so far obtained are far from ideal The Vicious traditions of the past handicap or partially pervert the efforts of the present Eastern students are prone to use their memories rather

Than their intellects and seek to cram their way quickly through examinations to coveted posts rather than acquire knowledge and thus really fit themselves for their careers the result is that many fail and these unfortunates half educated and spoiled for any sort of useful occupation vegetation miserably come to hate that westernism which they

Do not understand and give themselves up to anarchistic revolutionary agitation sir Alfred lwell describes the Dark Side of Western education in the East when he says of India ignorance is unquestionably the root of many evils and it was natural that in the last century certain philosophers should have

Assumed education to be a certain cure for human delusions and that Statesmen like mcau should have declared education to be the best and shest remedy for political discontent and for lawbreaking in any case it was the clear and imperative duty of the British government to attempt the intellectual

Emancipation of India as the best justification of British rule we have since discovered by experience that although education is a sovereign remedy for many ills is indeed indispensable to healthy progress yet an indiscriminate or superficial administration of this potent medicine May engender other disorders it acts upon the frame of an

Antique society as a powerful dissolvent heating weak brains stimulating rash Ambitions raising inordinate expectations of which the disappointment is bitterly resented 249 indeed some Western observers of the Orient particularly Colonial officials have been so much impressed by the political and social dangers arising from the existence of this literate proletariat of semi-educated failures

That they are tempted to condemn the whole Venture of West education in the east as a mistake Lord Cromer for example was decidedly skeptical of the worth of the western educated Egyptian 250 while a prominent anglo-indian official names as the chief cause of Indian unrest the system of Education

Which we ourselves introduced advisedly so far as the limited vision went of those responsible blindly in view of the inevitable consequences 251 yet these pessimistic judgments do not seem to make due allowance for the inescapable evils attendant on any transition stage other observers of the Orient have made due allowance for this

Factor vur for instance notes the high percentage of honest and capable native officials in the British Indian and French North African Civil Service the bulk of these officials of course Western educated men and concludes strictly conservative orientals and also fanatically inclined Europeans think that with the the entrance of our

Culture the Primitive Virtues Of The asiatics have been destroyed and that the uncivilized Oriental was more faithful more honest and more reliable than the Asiatic educated on European principles this is a gross error it may be true of the half educated but not of the Asiatic in whose case the

Intellectual evolution is founded on the solid basis of a thorough systematic education 252 and whatever may be the ills attendant upon Western education in the East is it not the only practicable course to pursue the impact of westernism upon the Orient is too ubiquitous to be confined to books

Granting therefore for the sake of argument that colonial governments could have prevented Western education in the formal sense would not the Oriental have learned in other ways surely it is better that he should learn through good texts under the supervision of qualified teachers rather than tortuously in perverted and more dangerous fashion the

Importance of Western education in the East is nowhere better Illustrated than in the effects it is producing in ameliorating the status of women the depressed condition of women throughout the Orient is too well known to need elaboration bad enough in mohammadan countries it is perhaps at its worst

Among the Hindus of India with child marriage the virtual enslavement of widows burned alive till prohibited by English law and a seclusion more strict even than that of the Haram of Muslim lands as an English writer well puts it ladies first we say in the West in the

East it is L’s last that sums up succinctly the difference in the domestic ideas of the two civilizations 253 under these circumstances it might seem as though no breath of the West could yet have reached these jealously secluded creatures yet as a matter of fact Western influences have already

Profoundly affected the women of the upper classes and female education while far behind that of the males has attained considerable proportions in the more advanced parts of the Orient like Constantinople Cairo and the cities of India distinctly modern types of women have appeared the self-supporting self-respecting and respected woman school teacher being

Especially in evidence the social consequences of this Rising status of women not only to women themselves but also to the community at large are very important in the East the Haram is as vber well says the bull workk of obscurantism 254 ignorant and fanatical herself the Haram woman implants her

Ignorance and fanaticism in her sons as well as in her daughters what could be a worse handicap for the Eastern intellectual than his Boyhood years spent behind the veil no wonder that enlightened Oriental fathers have been in the habit of sending their boys to school at the earliest possible age in

Order to get them as soon as possible out of the stultifying atmosphere of Haram life yet even this has proved merely a paliative childhood impressions are ever the most lasting and so long as one half of the Orient remained Untouched by Progressive influences Oriental progress had to be begun again

To Novo with every succeeding generation the increasing number of enlightened oriental women is remedying this fatal defect as a western writer well says give the mothers education and the whole situation is transformed girls who are learning other things than the unintelligible phrases of the Quran are certain to impart such

Knowledge as daughters sisters and mothers to their respective households women who learn housewifery methods of modern cooking sewing and sanitation in the domestic economy schools are bound to cast about the home upon their return the atmosphere of a civilized community the oldtime picture of the Oriental woman spending her hours upon divans

Eating sweet meats and indulging in Petty and degrading gossip with the servants or with women as ignorant as herself will be changed the new woman will be a companion rather than a slave or a toy of her husband marriage will advance from the stage of a poultry

Trade in bodies to something like a real Union involving respect towards the woman by both sons and fathers while in a new pride of relationship the woman herself will be discovered 255 these men and women of the newer Orient reflect their changing ideas in their changing standards of living

Although this is most evident among the wealthier elements of the towns it is perceptible in all classes of the population rich and poor urban and rural the orientals are altering their living standards towards those of the West and this involves social changes of the most far-reaching character because few

Antithesis could be sharper than the living conditions prevailing respectively in the traditional East and in the modern Western World this basic difference lies not in wealth the East like the West knows great riches as well as great poverty but rather in Comfort using the word in its broad sense the

Wealthy Oriental of the old school spends most of his money on Oriental luxuries like fine rment Jewels women horses and a great retinue of attendance and then Hoards the rest but of comfort in the western sense he knows virtually nothing and it is safe to say that he

Lives under domestic conditions which a western Artisan would despise 256 today however the Oriental is discovering comfort and high or low he likes it very well all the Myriad things which make our lives easier and more agreeable lamps electric light sewing machine clocks whiskey umbrellas sanitary plumbing and a thousand others all these

Things which to us are more or less matters of course are to the Oriental so many delightful discoveries of irresistible appeal he wants them and he gets them in ever increasing quantities but this produces some rather serious complications his private economy is more or less thrown out of gear this

Opening of a whole Vista of new wants means a portentous rise in his standard of living and where is he going to find the money to pay for it if he be poor he has to skimp on his bare necessities if he be rich he hates to forgo his traditional

Luxuries the upshot is a universal growth of extravagance and in this connection It is Well to bear in mind that the peoples of the near and Middle East taken as a whole have never been really Thrifty poor the masses may have been and thus obliged to live frugally but they have

Always proved themselves good Spenders when opportunity offers the way in which a Turkish peasant or a Hindu Riot will squander his savings and run into debt over festivals marriages funerals and other social events is astounding to Western observers 257 now add to all this the fact that in

The orient as in the rest of the world the cost of the basic necessaries of Life Food clothing Fuel and shelter has risen greatly during the past two decades and we can realize the gravity of the problem which higher Oriental living standards involves 258 certain it is that the struggle for

Existence is growing Keener and that the pressure of poverty is getting more severe with the basic necessaries rising in price and with many things considered Necessities which were considered luxuries or entirely unheard of a generation ago the Oriental peasant or town working man is finding it harder

And harder to make both ends meet as one writer well phrases it these altered economic conditions have not as yet brought the ability to meet them the cost of living has increased faster than the resources of the people 259 one of the main though not sufficiently recognized causes of the

Economic social crisis through which the Orient is today passing is overpopulation the quick breeding Tendencies of Oriental peoples have always been pervert and have been due not merely to strong sexual appetites but also to economic reasons like the harsh exploitation of women and children and perhaps even more to religious doctrines enjoining early

Marriage and the beginning of numerous Sons as a result Oriental populations have always pressed closeth upon the limits of subsistence in the past however this pressure was automatically lightened by factors like War misgovernment pestilence and famine which swep swpt off such multitudes of people that despite High birth rates populations

Remained at substantially a fixed level but here as in every other phase of Eastern life Western influences have radically altered the situation the extension of European political control over Eastern lands has meant the putting down of internal strife the diminution of governmental abuses the decrease of disease and the lessening of the blight

Of famine in other words those natural checks which previously kept down the population have been diminished or abolished and in response to the life-saving activities of the West the enormous death rate which in the past has kept Oriental populations from excessive multiplication is falling to proportions comparable with the low

Death rate of Western Nations but to lower the orient’s prodigious birth rate is quite another matter as a matter of fact that birth rate keeps up with undiminished Vigor and the consequence has been a portentous increase of population in nearly every portion of the Orient under Western political

Control in fact even those Oriental countries which have maintained their independence have more or less adopted Western life conserving methods and have experienced in greater or less degree an accelerated increase of population the phenomena of overpopulation are best seen in India most of India has been under British control for the greater

Part of a century even a century ago India was densely ly populated yet in the intervening 100 years the population has increased between two and threefold 260 of course factors like improved agriculture irrigation Railways and the introduction of modern industry enable India to support a much larger

Population than it could have done at the time of the British Conquest nevertheless the evidence is clear that excessive multiplication has taken place nearly all qualified students of the problem concur on this point 40 years ago the Duke of argyle stated where there is no store no accumulation

No wealth where the people live from hand to mouth from season to season on a low diet and where nevertheless they breed and multiply at such a rate there we can at least see that this power and force of multiplication is no evidence even of safety far less of comfort

Towards the close of the last century Sir William Hunter termed population India’s fundamental problem and continued the result of civilized rule in India has been to produce a strain on the food producing powers of the country such as it had never before to Bear it has become a truism of Indian statistics

That the removal of the old cruel checks on population in an Asiatic country is by no means an unmixed blessing to an Asiatic people 261 Lord chromer remarks of India’s poverty not only cannot It Be remedied by mere philanthropy but it is absolutely certain cruel and and

Paradoxical though it may appear to say so that philanthropy enhances the evil in the days of Akbar or Shah Jen Kera famine and internal strife kept down the population only the fittest survived now internal strife is forbidden and philanthropy steps in and says that no single life shall be sacrificed if

Science and Western energy or skill can save it hence the growth of a highly congested population vast numbers of whom are living on a bare margin of subsistence the fact that one of the greatest difficulties of governing the teeming masses of the East is caused by good and Humane government should be

Recognized it is too often ignored 262 William archerwell States the matter when in answer to the query why improved external conditions have not brought India Prosperity he says the reason in my view is simple namely that the benefit of good government is in part at any rate nullified when the people take

Advantage of it not to save and raise their standard of living but to breed to the very margin of subsistence Henry George used to point out that every mouth that came into the world brought two hands along with it but though the physiological fact is undeniable the economic deduction

Suggested will not hold good except in conditions that permit of the profitable employment of the two hands if mouths increase in a greater ratio than food the tendency must be towards greater poverty 263 it is one of the most unfortunate aspects of the situation that very few Oriental thinkers yet realize that

Overpopulation is a prime cause of Oriental poverty almost without exception they lay the blame to political factors especially to Western political control in fact the only case that I know of where an Eastern thinker has boldly faced the problem and has courageously advocated birth control is

In the book book published 5 Years Ago by PK wle a native official of the Indian finance department entitled the population problem of India 264 this Pioneer volume is written with such ability and is of such apparent significance as an indication of the Awakening of orientals to a more

Rational attitude that it merits special attention Mr wle begins his book by a plea to his fellow countrymen to look at the problem rationally and without prejudice this essay he says should not be constituted into an attack on the spiritual civilization of our country or even indirectly into a glorification of

The materialism of the West the object in view is that we should take a somewhat more matter of fact view of the main problem of Life VI how to live in this world we are a poor people the fact is indisputable our poverty is perhaps due

To a great many causes but I put it to every one of us whether he has not at some of the most momentous periods of his life been handicapped by having to support a large family and whether this incumbrance has not seriously affected the chances of advancement warranted by early promise and exceptional

Endowment this question should be viewed by itself it is a physical fact and has nothing to do with political environment or religious obligation if we have suffered from the consequences of that mistake is it not a duty that we owe to ourselves and to our progeny that evil effects shall be

Mitigated as far as possible there is no greater curse than poverty I say this with due respect to our spiritualism it is not in a spirit of reproach that restraint in married life is urged in these Pages it is solely from a vivid realization of the hardships caused by large families and a

Profound sympathy with the difficulties under which large numbers of respectable persons struggle through life in this country that I have made bold to speak in plain terms what comes to every young man but which he does not care to give utterance to in a manner that would prevent the recurrence of the evil

265 after this appeal to reason in his readers Mr wle develops his thesis the first Prime cause of overpopulation in India he asserts is early marriage contrary to Western lands where population is kept down by Prudential marriages and by birth control for the hindu’s marriage is a Sacrament which

Must be performed regardless of the fitness of the parties to Bear the responsibilities of a mated existence a Hindu male must marry and beget children Sons if you please to perform his funeral rights lest his Spirit wander uneasily in the waste places of the Earth the very name of son pudra means

One who saves his father’s soul from the hell called Puda a Hindu Maiden unmar at puberty is a source of social obloquy to her family and of damnation to her ancestors among the mohammadans who are not handicapped by such penalties the married state is equally common partly

Owing to Hindu example and partly to the general conditions of primitive Society where a wife is almost a necessity both as a domestic drudge and as a helpmate in field work 266 the worst of the matter is that despite the efforts of social reformers child marriage seems to be increasing

The census of 1911 showed that during the decade 1901 to1 the numbers of married females per 1,000 of Ages 0 to 5 years Rose from 13 to 14 of Ages 5 to 10 from 102 to 105 of 10 to 15 from 423 to 430 and of 15 to 20 from 770 to

800 in other words in the year 1911 out of every 1,000 Indian girls over 1/10th were married before they were 10 years old nearly 1/ half before they were 15 and 4 fifths before they were 2267 the result of all this is a tremendous birth rate but this is no matter for

Congratulation we have heard so often of our high death rate and the means for combating it but can it be seriously believed that with a birth rate of 30 per 1,000 it is possible to go on as we are doing with the death rate brought down to the level of England or Scotland

Is there room enough in the country for the population to increase so fast as 20 per 1,000 every year we are paying the inevitable penalty of bringing into this world more persons than can be properly cared for and therefore if we wish fewer deaths to occur in this country the

Births must be reduced to the level of the countries where the death rate is low it is therefore our high birth rate that is the social danger the high death rate however regrettable is merely an incident of our high birth rate 268 Mr W then describes the cruel items

In India’s death rate the tremendous female mortality due largely to too early child birth and the equally terrible infant mortality nearly 50 percenter of infant deaths being due to premature birth or debility at Birth these are the inevitable penalties of early and Universal marriage for in India everybody marries fit or unfit and

Is Apparent at the earliest possible age permitted by Nature this process is highly dysgenic it is plainly lowering the quality and sapping the Vigor of the race it is the lower elements of the population the negroid Aboriginal tribes and the Paras or outcasts who are gaining the

Fastest also the Vitality of the whole population seems to be lowering the census figures show that the number of elderly persons is decreasing and that the average statistical expectation of life is falling the coming generation is severely handicapped at start in life and the chances of living to a good old

Age are considerably smaller than they were say 30 or 40 years ago have we ever paused to consider what it means to us in the life of the nation as a whole it means that the people who Alone by weight of experience and wisdom are fitted for the posts of command in the

Various public activities of the country are snatched away by death and that the guidance and Leadership which belongs to age and mature judgment in the countries of the West fall in India to younger and consequently to less trustworthy persons 269 after warning his fellow countrymen that neither improved methods of

Agriculture the growth of Industry nor immigration can afford any real relief to the growing pressure of population on means of subsistence he notes a few hopeful signs that despite the hold of religion and custom the people are beginning to realize the situation and that in certain parts of India there are

Foreshadowings of birth control for example he quotes from the Census report for 1901 this official explanation of a slight drop in the birth rate of Bengal the postponement of the age of marriage cannot wholly account for the diminished rate of reproduction the deliberate avoidance of childbearing must also be partly

Responsible it is a matter of common belief that among the Tea Garden coolies of Asam means are frequently taken to prevent conception or to procure abortion and the report of the sanitary Commissioner of as am for 1913 States an important factor in producing the defective birth rate appears to be due

To voluntary limitation of birth 270 however these beginnings of birth control are too local and partial to afford any immediate relief to India’s growing overpopulation wider appreciation of the situation and prompt action are needed the conclusion is irresistible we can no longer afford to shut our eyes to the social caner in our

Midst in the land of the bullet card the motor has come to stay the competition is now with the more advanced races of the West and we cannot tell them what diogenes said to Alexander Stand Out of My Sunshine after the close of this gigantic World War theories of

Population will perhaps be revised and a reversion in favor of early marriage and larger families may be counted upon but one that will be no solution to our own population problem and two this reaction will be only for a Time the law of population may be arrested in its operation but there is

No way of escaping it 271 so concludes this striking little book furthermore we must remember that although India may be the acutest sufferer from overpopulation conditions in the entire Orient are basically the same Prudential checks and rational birth control being everywhere virtually absent 272 remembering also that besides overpopulation there are other economic

And social evils previously discussed we cannot be surprised to find in all Eastern lands much acute poverty and social degradation both the rural and urban masses usually live on the bare margin of subsistence the English Economist brailford thus describes the condition of the Egyptian peasantry The Villages

Exhibited a poverty such as I have never seen even in the mountains of anarchical Macedonia or among the bogs of Donal The Villages are crowded slums of mud hubs without a tree a flower or a garden the Huts often without a window or a leveled floor are minute dungeons

Of baked mud usually of two small rooms neither whitewashed nor carpeted those which I entered were bare of any visible property save a few cooking utensils a mat to serve as a bed and a jar which held the staple food of ma two 273 as for the poorer Indian peasants a British

Sanitary official thus depicts their mode of life one has actually to see the interior of the houses in which each family is often compelled to live in a single small cell made of mud walls and with a mud floor containing small yards littered with rubbish often crowded with cattle possessing Wells permeated by

Rain soaking through this filthy surface and frequently jumbled together in enco masses called towns and cities 274 in the cities indeed conditions are even worse than in the country the slums of the Orient surpassing the slums of the West the French publicist Lewis Bertrand paints positively nauseating

Pictures of the poorer quarters of the great lentine towns like Cairo Constantinople and Jerusalem omitting his more poignant details here is his description of a Cairo tenement in Cairo as elsewhere in Egypt the wretchedness and grossness of the poorer class dwellings are perhaps even more shocking

Than in the other Eastern lands two or three dark airless rooms usually open on a hallway not less obscure the plaster peeling off from the ceilings and the worm eaten LS of the walls Falls constantly to the filthy floors the straw mats and bedding are infested by innumerable Vermin

275 in India it is the same story says fiser even before the growth of her Industries had begun the cities of India presented a baffling housing problem into the Welter of crooked streets and unsanitary habits of an oriental City these great industrial plants are wedging their thousands of

Employees working from Before Dawn until after dark men and women are too exhausted to go far from the plant to sleep if they can help it when nearby houses are jammed to Suffocation they live and sleep in the streets in in Kolkata 20 years ago 276 land had reached

$200,000 an acre in the overcrowded tenement districts 277 of Kolkata a western writer remarks Kolkata is a shame even in the east in its slums milans and Doc coolies do not live they pig houses choke with UNH wholesome breath drains and compounds fester in filth Wheels compress decaying

Refuse in the road s cows drink from well soaked with sewage and the floors of bakeries are washed in the same pollution 278 in the other industrial centers of India conditions are practically the same a Bombay native sanitary official stated in a report on the state of the

Tenement District drawn up in 1904 in such houses the breeders of germs and basili the centers of disease and poverty Vice and crime have people of all kinds the diseased the dissolute the drunken the improvident been indiscriminately hurted and tightly packed in vast hordes to dwell in close association with each other

279 furthermore Urban conditions seem to be getting worse rather than better the problem of congestion in particular is assuming ever Graver proportions already in the opening years of the present Century the congestion in the great industrial centers of India like Kolkata Bombay and luck now averaged three or four times the

Congestion of London and the late War has rendered the housing crisis even more acute in the east as in the west the War caused a rapid drift of population to the cities and at the same time stopped building owing to the prohibitive cost of construction hence a prodigious rise in

Rents and a plague of landlord profiteering says fiser rents were raised as much as 300 perer enforced by eviction Mass meetings of protest in Bombay resulted in government action fixing maximum rents for some of the tenements occupied by Artisans and laborers setting maximum rental does not however make more room

2080 and of course it must not be forgotten that higher rents are only one phase in a general rise in the cost of living that has been going on in the East for a generation and which has been particularly pronounced since 1914 more than a decade ago Bertrand wrote of

The near East from one end of the Levant to the other at Constantinople as at Smyrna Damascus beout and Cairo I heard the same complaints about the increasing cost of living and these complaints were uttered by Europeans as well as by the natives 281 today the situation is even

More difficult says sir Valentine kyol of conditions in Egypt since the war the rise in wages consider as it has been has ceased to keep Pace with the inordinate rise in prices for the very necessities of life this is particularly the case in the urban centers where the lower classes workmen Carters cab

Drivers shopkeepers and a host off minor employees are hard put to it nowadays to make both ends meet 282 as a result of all these hard conditions various phenomena of social degradation such as alcoholism Vice and crime are becoming increasing common 283 last but not least there are growing symptoms of social

Unrest and revolutionary agitation which we will examine in the next chapter footnotes 239 I.E the educated upper class 240 vur L turkey DD KS p13 241 I.E the Priestly class 242 vur L turkey D ETD aan KS p15 243 vur La turkey ddan kants P51 244 Bookshare essays Indian and

Islamic Pages 221 to 226 245 book share essays Indian and Islamic p24 246 the perta is the curtain separating the women’s apartments from the rest of the house 247 book share essays Indian and Islamic Pages 254 to 255 248 for progress in Western education in the orient under both

European and Native opes CL Bertrand l e Mirage Oriental Pages 291 to3 392 CS Cooper the modernizing of the Orient Pages 3-13 24- 64 249 in his introduction to Sir Valentine kyo’s Indian unrest p12 250 chromer modern Egypt Volume 2 Pages 228 to 243 251 JD re the real India P1 162 London

1908 252 vur Western culture in eastern lands Pages 203 to 204 253 H Compton Indian life in Town and Country p98 London 1904 254 VY L turkey ddan KS p32 255 Cooper opci Pages 48 to 49 256 on this point of comfort V luxury C especially sir bamp Fila Fuller East

And West a study of differences 19th century and after November 1911 257 Al Bertrand op CIT 145 to 147 J da administrative problems of British India Pages 138 to 139 for increased expenditure on Western Products C AJ Brown economic changes in Asia the century March 1904 JP Jones the

Present situation in India Journal of race development July 1910 R mookery the foundations of Indian economics P5 258 for higher cost of living in the East SE Kyo Indian unrest Pages 2 to3 Fisher India silent Revolution Pages 46-60 Jones opci TT Williams inquiry into the rise of prices in India Economic Journal December

1915 259 Brown opci 26 at the beginning of the 19th century the population of India is roughly estimated to have been about 100 million according to the census of 1911 the population was 315 million 261 sir ww Hunter the India of the queen and other essays p42 London 1903

262 chromer some problems of government in Europe and Asia 19th century and after May 1913 263 Archer India and the future Pages 157 162 London 1918 264 PK W of the Indian finance department assistant accountant General the book was published at Bombay 1916 265 W Pages i3 266 W P3 267 IID

P12 268 W p14 269 IID Pages 19 to 21 270 W p28 271 IID p82 272 for conditions in the near East C Bertrand Pages 110 124 125 to 128 273 hn brailford the war of Steel and gold Pages 112 to3 see also T Rothstein Egypt’s ruin Pages

298-300 London 1910 sir ww Ramsey the Turkish peasantry of anat quarterly review January 1918 274 Dr d ross wretchedness a cause of political unrest the survey February 18th 1911 275 berand opci Pages 111 to 112 276 I.E in 1900 277 Fisher India silent Revolution P51 278 GW Stevens in India quoted by fiser

P51 279 Dr Bal Shandra Krishna quoted by a YF Ali life and labor in India P35 London 1907 280 Fisher Pages 51 to 52 281 Beren p41 282 CI kyol England’s Peril in Egypt from the London Times 1919 283 C Bertrand and fiser Supra chapter n social unrest and

Babism unrest is the natural concomitant of change particularly of sudden change every break with past however normal and inevitable implies a necessity for Readjustment to altered conditions which causes a temporary sense of restless disharmony until the required adjustment has been made unrest is not an exceptional phenomenon it is always

Latent in every human society which has not fallen into complete stagnation and a slight amount of unrest should be considered a sign of Healthy Growth rather than a symptom of disease in fact the minimum degrees of unrest are usually not called by that name but are considered mere incidents of normal

Development under normal circumstances indeed the social organism functions like the human organism it is being incessantly destroyed and as incessantly renewed in Conformity with the changing conditions of life these changes are sometimes very considerable but they are so gradual that they are affected almost without being perceived a healthy

Organism well attuned to its environment is always plastic it instinctively senses environmental changes and adapts itself so rapidly that it escapes the injurious consequences of disharmony far different is the character of unrest secut or manifestations these are infallible symptoms of sweeping changes sudden breaks with the past and profound

Maladjustments which are not being rapidly rectified in other words acute unrest denotes social ill health and portense the possibility of one of those violent crises known as revolutions the history of the Muslim East well exemplifies the above generalizations the formative period of sasic civilization was characterized by rapid change and an intense idealistic

Ferment the great Motas like movement embraced many shades of thought its radical Wing professing religious political and social doctrines of a violent revolutionary nature but this changeful period was superficial and brief Arab Vigor and the Islamic Spirit proved unable permanently to love in the vast inertia of the anci ient East soon

The old traditions reasserted themselves somewhat modified to be sure yet basically the same serenic civilization became stereotyped aifi and with this oif changeful unrest died away here and there the radical tradition was preserved and secretly handed down by a few obscure sects like the kites of inner Arabia and the Bishi dervishes but

These were mere cryptic episodes of no General significance with the muhammadan Revival at the beginning of the 19th century however symptoms of social unrest appeared once more wahabism aimed not merely at a reform of religious abuses but was also a general protest against the Contemporary decadence of Muslim

Society in many cases it took the form of a popular revolt against established governments the same was true of the correlative babst movement in Persia which took place about the same time 284 and of course the nassin stirrings were greatly stimulated by the flood of Western ideas and methods which as the

19th century wore on increasingly permeated the East what indeed could be more provocative of unrest of every description than the resulting transformation of the Orient a transformation so sudden so intense and necessitating so concentrated a process of adaptation that it was basically revolutionary rather than evolutionary in its nature the details of these

Profound changes is political religious economic social we have already studied together with the equally profound disturbance bewilderment and suffering afflicting all classes in this eminently transition period the essentially revolutionary nature of this transition period as exemplified by India is well described by a British Economist 285 what he asks could be more

Anachronistic than the contrast between rural and urban India rural India is primitive or medieval city India is modern in City India you will find every symbol of Western life from Banks and factories down to the very sand Wickman that you left in the London gutters now

All the co exists beside rural India and it is surely a fact unique in economic history that they should thus exist side by side the present condition of India does not correspond with any period of European economic history imagine the effect in Europe of setting down modern and medieval men together with utterly

Disperate ideas that has not happened in Europe because European progress in the economic world has been evolutionary a process spread over centuries in India on the other hand this economic transformation has been revolutionary in character how un evolutionary is India’s economic transformation is seen by the condition of rural India rural India though

Chiefly characterized by primitive usage has been invaded by ideas that are intensely hostile to the Old State of things it is primitive but not consistently primitive competitive wages are paid side by side with customary wages prices are sometimes fixed by custom but sometimes too by free economic causes from the midst of a

Population deeply rooted in the soil men are being Carried Away by the desire of better wages in short econom IC motives have suddenly and partially intruded themselves in the realm of primitive morality and if we turn to City India we see a similar though inverted state of

Things in neither case has the mixture been harmonious or the fusion complete indeed the two orders are too unrelated too far apart to coales with ease India then is in a state of economic Revolution throughout all the classes of an enormous and complex Society the only period in which Europe offered even

Faint analogies to Modern India was the Industrial Revolution from which even now we have not settled down into comparative stability we may reckon it as a fortunate circumstance for Europe that the intellectual movement which culminated in the French Revolution did not coincide with the Industrial Revolution if it had it is possible that

European Society might have been hopelessly wrecked but as it was even when the French Revolution had spent its force in the conquests of Napoleon the Industrial Revolution stirred up enough social and political discontent when whole classes of people are obliged by economic Revolution to change their mode of life it is

Inevitable that many should suffer discontent is roused political and destructive movements are certain to ensue not only the Revolutions of 48 but also the birth of the Socialist Party sprang from the Industrial Revolution but that Revolution was not nearly so sweeping as that which is now in operation in India the invention of

Machinery and steam power was in Europe but the crowning event of a long series of years in which Commerce and Industry had been constantly expanding in which capital had been largely accumulated in which economic principles had been gradually spreading no the Indian economic Revolution is vastly greater and more fundamental than our Industrial

Revolution great as that was Railways have been built through districts where travel was almost impossible and even roads are unknown factories have been built and filled by men unused to Industrial labor Capital has been poured into the country which was unprepared for any such development and what are the consequences India’s social organization

Is being dissolved the brahin are no longer priests the riot is no longer bound to the soil the B is no longer the sole purveyor of capital the handw Weaver is threatened with Extinction and the brass worker can no longer ply his craft think of the dislocation which

This Sudden Change has brought about of the many who can no longer follow their ancestral vocations of the commotion which a less profound change produced in Europe and you will understand what is the chief Motive Power of the political unrest it is Small Wonder the Wonder is

That the rest has been no greater than it is had India not been an Asiatic country she would have been in Fierce Revolution long ago the above lines were of course written in the opening years of the 20th century before the world had been Shattered by Armageddon and aggressive social revolution had

Established itself in semi- Asiatic Russia but even during those pre-war years other students of the Orient were predicting social disturbances of increasing gravity said the Hindu National leader bipin Shandra pal this so-called unrest is not really political it is essentially an intellectual and spiritual upheaval the Forerunner of a

Mighty social Revolution with a new organon and a new philosophy of life behind it 286 and the French publicist Chay wrote of India there will be a series of economic revolutions which must necessarily produce suffering and struggle 287 during this pre-war period The increased difficulty of living conditions together with the adoption of

Western ideas of comfort and Kindred higher standards seem to have been engendering friction between the different strata of the Oriental population in 1911 a British sanitary expert assigned wretchedness as the root cause of India’s political unrest after describing the deplorable living conditions of the Indian masses

He wrote it will of course be said at once that these conditions have existed in India from time immemorial and are no more likely to cause unrest now than previously but in my opinion unrest has always existed there in a Subterranean form moreover in the old days the populace could make scarcely any

Comparison between their own condition and that of more fortunate people now they can compare their own slums and terrible native quarters with the much better ordered cantonments stations and houses of the British officials and even of their own wealthier Brethren so far as I can and see such misery is always

The fundamental cause of all popular unrest seditious meetings political chatter and aspirations of Baboo and demagogues are only The Superficial manifestations of the deeper disturbance 288 this growing social friction was indubitably heightened by the lack of interest of orientals in the sufferings of all persons not bound to them by

Family cast or customary ties throughout the East Social Service in the western sense is practically unknown this fact is noted by a few orientals themselves says an Indian writer speaking of Indian Town life there is no common measure of social conduct hither to social reform in India has taken account only of

Individual or family life as applied to Mankind in the mass and especially to those soulless Gomer of seething Humanity which we call cities it is a gospel yet to be preached 289 as an American sociologist remarked of the growing slum evil throughout the industrialized Orient the

Greatest danger is due to the fact that orientals do not have the high Western sense of the value of the life of the individual and are comparatively speaking without any restraining influence similar to our own enlightened public opinion which has been roused by the struggles of a century of industrial

Strife unless these elements can be supplied there is danger of suffering and of abuses worse than any the West has known 290 all this diffused social unrest was centering about two recently emerged elements the Western educated intelligencia and the industrial proletariat of the factory towns the Revolutionary Tendencies of the

Intelligencia particularly of its half-educated failures have been already noted and these latter have undoubtedly played a leading part in all the Revolutionary disturbances of the modern Orient from North Africa to China 291 regarding the industrial proletariat some writers think that there is little immediate likelihood of their becoming a

Major revolutionary Factor because of their traditionalism ignorance and apathy and also because there is no real connection between them and the intelligencia the other Center of social discontent the French Economist Meen States this Viewpoint very well speaking primarily of India he writes the Nationalist movement rises from the middle classes and manifests no

Systematic hostility toward the capitalists and great Proprietors in economic matters it is on their side 292 as for the proletariat the Kies do not imagine that their lot can be bettered like the riots and the agricultural laborers they do not show the least sign of Revolt to whom should they turn the

Ranks of traditional Society are closed to to them people without cast the coolies are despised even by the old style Artisan proud of his cast status humble though that be to fall to the job of a Kuli is for the Hindu the worst declass the factory workers are not yet

Numerous enough to form a compact and Powerful proletariat able to exert pressure on the old Society even if they do occasionally strike they are as far from the modern Trade union as they are from the tradition working cast neither can they look for leadership to the intellectual proletariat for the

Nationalist movement has not emerged from the Bourgeois phase and always leans on the capitalists thus Indian industry is still in its embryonic stages in truth the material Evolution which translates Itself by the construction of factories and the social Evolution which creates a proletariat have only begun to emerge while the intellectual Evolution from

Which the programs of social demands has not even begun 293 other observers of Indian industrial conditions however do not share M mean’s opinion says the British labor leader J Ramsey McDonald to imagine the backward Indian laborers becoming a conscious regiment in the class war seems to be

One of the vinest dreams in which a western mind can indulge but I sometimes wonder if it be so very vain after all in the first place the development of factory industry in India has created a landless and homeless proletariat unmatched by the same economic class in any other capitalist community and to

Imagine that this class is to be kept out or can be kept out of Indian politics is far more vain than to dream of its developing a Politics on Western lines further than that the wage earners have shown a willingness to respond to trades Union methods they are forming

Industrial associations and have have engaged in strikes some of the social reform movements conducted by Indian intellectuals definitely try to establish trades unions and preach ideas familiar to us in connection with trades Union propaganda a capitalist fiscal policy will not only give this movement a great impetus as it did in Japan but

In India will not be able to suppress the movement as was done in Japan by legislation as yet the true proletarian wag earner uprooted from his native Village and broken away from the organization of Indian Society is but insignificant it is growing however and I believe that it will organize itself

Rapidly on the general lines of the proletarian classes of other capitalist countries so soon as it becomes politically conscious there are no other lines upon which it can organize itself 294 turning to the near East more than a decade ago a French socialist writer observing the hard living conditions of

The Egyptian masses noted signs of social unrest and predicted grave disturbances a genuine proletariat he wrote has been created by the multiplication of Industries and the sudden almost abrupt progress which has followed the cost of living has risen to a scale hither to unknown in Egypt while wages have risen but slightly poverty

And want abound someday suffering will provoke the people to complaints perhaps to angry outbursts throughout this apparently prosperous Delta it is true that the influx of foreigners and of money may put off the hour when the city or country Laborer of Egyptian race comes clearly to perceive the wrongs

That are being done to him he may miss the educational influence of socialism yet such an Awakening may come sooner than people expect it is not only among the successful and prosperous Egyptians that intelligence is to be found those whose wages are growing GR ually smaller and smaller have

Intelligence of equal keenness and it has become a real question as to the hour when for the first time in the land of Islam the flame of Muhammad and socialism shall burst forth 295 in Algeria likewise a Belgian traveler noted the dawning of a proletarian Consciousness among the town

Working men just before the Great War speaking of the rapid spread of Western ideas he wrote Islam Tears aunder like rotten cloth on the keys of Alger the Dockers coal passers and engine tenders to whatever race they belong leave their Islam and acquire a genuine proletarian morality that of the

Proletarians of Europe and they make common cause with their European colleagues on the basis of a strictly economic struggle if there were many big factories in Algeria Orthodox Islam would soon disappear there as old-fashioned Catholicism has disappeared with us under the shock of great industry 29 6 whatever may be the

Prospects as to the rapid emergence of organized labor movements in the orient one thing seems certain the unrest which Afflicted so many parts of the east in the Years preceding the Great War though mainly political had also its social side toward the end of 1913 a leading anglo-indian Journal remarked

Pessimistically we have already gone so far on the downward path that leads to destruction that there are districts in what were once regarded as the most L parts of India which are being abandoned by the rich because their property is not safe so great is the contempt for

The law that it is employed by the unscrupulous as a means of offense against the innocent Frontier patons commit outrage is almost unbelievable in their daring Mass meetings are held and agitation spreads in regard to topics quite outside the business of orderly people there is no matter of domestic or

Foreign politics in which crowds of irresponsible people do not want to have their passionate way great grievances are made of little far off things what ought to be the ordered spacious life of the district officer is intruded upon and disturbed by a 100 distracting influences due to the want of discipline

Of the people in the subordinate ranks of the great Services themselves trades unions have been formed military and police officers have to regret that the new class of recruits is less subordinate than the old harder to discipline more full of complaints 297 the Great War of course enormously

Aggravated Oriental unrest in many parts of the near East especially acute suffering boked Ambitions and Furious hates combined to reduce Society to the verge of chaos into this ominous turmoil there now came the Sinister influence of Russian bolshevism marshalling all this diffused unrest by systematic methods for definite ends bolshevism was frankly

Out for a World Revolution and the destruction of Western Civilization to attain this objective the bolshevist leaders not only launched direct assaults on the west but also planned flank attacks in Asia and Africa they believed that if the East could be set on fire Not only would Russian bolshevism gain vast additional strength

But also the economic repercussion on the west already shaken by the war would be so terrific that industrial collapse would ensue thereby throwing Europe open to Revolution bism propagandist efforts were nothing short of universal both in area and in scope no part of the world was free from

The plottings of its agents no possible source of discontent was overlooked strictly read doctrines like the dictatorship of the proletariat were very far from being the only weapons in bolism Armory since what was first wanted was the overthrow of the existing world order any kind of opposition to

That order no matter how remote doctrinally from bolshevism was Gris to the bolshevist mill accordingly in every quarter of the globe in Asia Africa Australia and the Americas as in Europe Bolshevik agitators whispered in the ears of the discontented their Gospel of hatred and revenge every nationalist aspiration every political grievance

Every social injustice every racial discrimination was fuel for bolism incitement to violence and War 200 98 particularly promising fields for bolshevist activity were the near and Middle East besides being aey to profound disturbances of every description those regions as traditional objectives of the old zaris imperialism had long been carefully studied by

Russian agents who had evolved a technique of Pacific penetration that might be easily adjusted to bolshevist ends to stir up political religious and racial passions in Turkey Persia Afghanistan and India especially against England required no original Planning by trosky or Lenin zorm had already done these things for generations and full

Information lay both in the petrograd archives and in the brains of surviving zaris agents ready to turn their hands as easily to the new work as the old in all the elaborate network of bolshevist propaganda which today inshes the East we must discriminate between bism two objectives one immediate the destruction

Of Western political and economic Supremacy the other ultimate the buising of the Oriental masses and the consequent extrap of the Native upper and middle classes precisely as has been done in Russia and as is planned for the countries of the West in the first stage bism is quite ready to respect Oriental

Fates and customs and to back Oriental nationalist movements in the second stage religions like Islam and nationalists like Musta kimal are to be branded as bat and relentlessly destroyed how Bolshevik diplomacy ende to work these two schemes in double harness we shall presently see Russian bolshevism Oriental policy was

Formulated soon after its accession to power at the close of 1917 the year 1918 was a time of busy preparation an elaborate propaganda organization was built up from various sources a number of old zaris agents and diplomats versed in eastern Affairs were cajoled or conscripted into the service the Russian mohamedan populations such

As the tartar of South Russia and the turkomans of Central Asia furnished many recruits even more valuable were the Exiles who flocked to Russia from Turkey Persia India and elsewhere at the close of the Great War practically all the leaders of the Turkish War government

And ver jul talot and many more fled to Russia for Refuge from the Vengeance of the Victorious un taunt Powers the same was true of the Hindu terrorist leaders who had been in German pay during the War and who now sought service under Lenin by the end of 1918 bolshevism

Oriental propaganda Department was well organized divided into three bureaus for the Islamic countries India and the Far East respectively with bolshevism Far Eastern activities this book is not concerned though the reader should bear them in mind and should remember the important part played by the Chinese in recent

Russian history as for the Islamic and Indian bureaus they displayed great Zeal translating tons of Bolshevik literature into the various Oriental languages training numerous secret agents and propagandists for field work and getting in touch with all disaffected or revolutionary elements with the opening months of 1919 bolshevist activity

Throughout the near and Middle East became increasingly apparent the wave of rage and despair caused by the amant’s denial of near Eastern nationalist aspirations 299 played splendidly into the bolshevist hands and we have already seen how Moscow supported Musta kimal and other nationalist leaders in Turkey Persia Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle

East also bism gained important successes not merely was moscow’s hand visible in the epidemic of rioting and seditious violence which swept Northern India in the spring of 191 19300 but an even shudder blow was struck at Britain in Afghanistan this land of turbulent Mountaineers which lay like a Perpetual Thundercloud on India’s Northwest

Frontier had kept quiet during the Great War mainly owing to the angile attitude of its ruler the Amir habibak Khan but early in 1919 Habib was murdered whether the biki had a hand in the matter is not known but they certainly reaped the benefit for power passed to one of

Hababa his sons amanah Khan who was an avowed enemy of England and who had had dealings with turco-german agents during the late War ammana at once got in touch with Moscow and a little later just when the Punjab was seething with unrest he declared war on England and his wild

Tribesmen pouring across the border set the Northwest Frontier on fire after some hard fighting the British succeeded in repelling the Afghan Invasion and amanola was constrained to make peace but Britain obviously dared not press amanola too hard for in the peace treaty the Amir was released from his previous

Obligation not to maintain diplomatic relations with other nations than British India ammana promptly aired his independence by maintaining ostentatious relations with Moscow as a matter of fact the Bolshevik had by this time established an important propagandist subcenter in Russian turkistan not far from the Afghan border and this bureau’s

Activities of course envisaged not merely Afghanistan but the wider field of India as well 301 during 1920 Bolshevik activities became still more pronounced throughout the near and Middle East we have already seen how powerfully Bolshevik Russia supported the Turkish and Persian nationalist movements in fact The Reckless short-sightedness of onun

Policy was driving into Lenin’s arms multitudes of nationalists to whom the internationalist theories of Moscow were personally abhorent for example the head of the Afghan mission to Moscow thus frankly expressed his reasons for friendship with Soviet Russia in an interview printed by the official Soviet organ ivesta I am neither communist nor

Socialist but my political program so far is the expulsion of the English from Asia I am an irreconcilable enemy of European capitalism in Asia the chief representatives of which are the English on this point I coincide with the Communists and in this respect we are your natural allies Afghanistan

Like India does not represent a capitalist State and it is very unlikely that even a parliamentary regime will take deep root in these countries it is so far difficult to say how subsequent events will develop I only know that the renowned address of the Soviet government to all nations with its

Appeal to them to combat capitalists and for us a capitalist is synonymous with the word Foreigner or to be more exact an Englishman had an enormous effect on us a still greater effect was produced by Russia’s analment of all the secret treaties enforced by the imperialistic governments and by the proclaiming of

The right of all Nations no matter how small to determine their own destiny this act red around Soviet Russia all the exploited nationalities of Asia and all parties even those very remote from socialism of course knowing what we do of Bolshevik propagandist tactics we cannot be sure that the Afghan Diplomat

Ever said the things which the ivester relates but even if the interview be a fake the words put into his mouth Express the feelings of vast numbers of orientals and explain a prime cause of Bolshevik propagandist successes in eastern lands so successful indeed had been the progress of Bolshevik

Propaganda that the Soviet leaders now began to work openly for their ultimate ends at first Moscow had posed as the champion of Oriental peoples against Western imperialism its appeals had been to Peoples irrespective of class and it had promised self-determination with full respect for Native ideas and institutions for instance a bolshevist

Manifesto to the Turks signed by Lenin and issued toward the close of 1919 read musulmans of the world victims of the capitalists awake Russia has abandoned aar’s pricious policy toward you and offers to help you overthrow English tyranny she will allow you freedom of religion and self-government the Frontiers existing

Before the war will be respected no Turkish territory will be given Armenia The dardel Straits will remain yours and Constantinople will remain the capital of the musman world the musulmans in Russia will be given self-government all we ask in exchange is that you fight The Reckless capitalists who would exploit your

Country and make it a colony even when addressing its own people the Soviet government maintained the same general tone an order of the day to the Russian troops stationed on the borders of India stated comrades of the Premier Division you have been given a responsible task the Soviet Republic

Sends you to Garrison the posts on the PIR on the frontiers of the friendly countries of Afghanistan and India the pamir table land divides revolutionary Russia from India which with its 300 million inhabitants is enslaved by a handful of Englishmen on this table land the signalers of revolution must Hoist

The red flag of the army of Liberation May the peoples of India who fight against their English oppressors soon know that friendly help is not far off make yourselves at home with the Liberty loving tribes of Northern India promote by word and deed their revolutionary progress refute the mass

Of calumnies spread about Soviet Russia by agents of the British princes Lords and bankers long live the alliance of the Revolutionary peoples of Europe and Asia such was the nature of first stage Bolshevik propaganda presently however propaganda of quite a different character began to appear this second stage propaganda of

Course continued to assail Western capitalist imperialism but alongside or rather intermingled with these anti-western fulminations there now appeared special appeals to the Oriental masses inciting them against all capitalists and Bourgeois native as well as foreign and promising the proletarians remedies for all their ills here is a bolshevist Manifesto to the Turkish masses

Published in the summer of 1920 it is very different from the manifestos of a year before the men of toil says this interesting document are now struggling everywhere against the rich people these people with the assistance of the aristocracy and their hirelings are now trying to hold Turkish

Toilers in their chains it is the rich people of Europe who have brought suffering to Turkey comrades let us make common cause with the world’s toilers if we do not do so we shall never rise again let the heroes of turkey’s Revolution join bolshevism long live the third

International praise be to Allah and in these new efforts Moscow was not content with words it was passing to Deeds as well the first application of bolshevism to an Eastern people was in Russian turkistan when the baliki first came to power at the end of 1917 they had granted turkistan full

Self-determination and the inhabitants had acclaimed their native princes and reestablished their Old State units subject to a loose federative tie with Russia early in 1920 however the Soviet government considered turkistan ripe for the social Revolution accordingly the native princes were deposed all political power was transferred to local Soviets

Controlled by Russians the native upper and middle classes were despoiled of their property and sporadic resistance was crushed by mass executions torture and other familiar forms of bolshevist terrorism 302 in the Caucasus also the social revolution had begun with the sovietization of azerbijan the tartar Republic of azerbijan was one of the

Fragments of the former Russian province of transcaucasia which had declared its independence on the collapse of the zaris empire in 1917 located in Eastern transcaucasia about the Caspian Sea azer Bean’s Capital was the city of Baku famous for its oil fields oil had transformed Baku into an industrial center on Western

Lines with a large working population of mixed Asiatic and Russian origin playing upon the nassin class consciousness of this Urban proletariat the Bolshevik agents made a cou in the spring of 1920 overthrew the Nationalist government and with prompt Russian backing made aeran a Soviet Republic the usual accompaniments of the social Revolution followed

Despoiling and massacring of the upper and middle classes confiscation of property in favor of the town proletarians and agricultural laborers and ruthless terrorism with the opening months of 1920 bism was thus in actual operation in both the near and Middle East 303 having acquired strong footholds in

The orient bism now felt strong enough to throw off the mask in the Autumn of 1920 the Soviet government of Russia held a Congress of Eastern peoples at Baku the aim of which was not merely The Liberation of the Orient from Western control but it’s buising as well no

Attempt at concealment of this larger objective was made and so striking was the language employed that it may well Merit our close attention in the first place the call to the Congress issued by the third Moscow International was addressed to The Peasants and workers of the East the summons read peasants and

Workers of Persia the Taran government of the cat jars and its retinue of provincial cons have plundered and exploited you through many centuries the land which according to the laws of the sharat was your common property has been taken possession of more and more by the Lackey of the Taran

Government they trade it away at their pleasure they lay what taxes please them upon you and when through their mismanagement they got the country into such a condition that they were unable to squeeze enough juice out of it themselves they sold Persia last year to English capitalists for2 million so that

The latter will organize an Army in Persia that will ress you still more than formerly and so the latter can collect taxes for the K and the tan government they have sold the oil wells in South Persia and thus helped plunder the country peasants of Mesopotamia the English have declared

Your country to be independent but 80,000 English soldiers are stationed in your country are robbing and plundering are killing you and are violating your women peasants of Anatolia the English French and Italian governments hold Constantinople under the mouths of their Cannon they have made the sultan their prisoner they are

Obliging him to consent to the dismemberment of what is purely Turkish territory they are forcing him to turn the country’s finances over to foreign capitalists in order to make it possible for them better to exploit the Turkish people already reduced to a state of beggy by the six-year War they have

Occupied the coal mines of heraclea they are holding your ports they are sending their troops into to your country and are trampling down your Fields peasants and workers of Armenia decades ago you became the victims of the intrigues of foreign Capital which launched heavy verbal attacks against

The massacres of the Armenians by the Kurds and incited you to fight against the Sultan in order to obtain through your blood new concessions and fresh profits daily from the bloody Sultan during the war they not only promised you Independence but they incited your Merchants your teachers and your priests

To demand the land of the Turkish peasants in order to keep up an eternal conflict between the Armenian and Turkish peoples so that they could eternally derive profits out of this conflict for as long as Strife prevails between you and the Turks just so long will the English French and American

Capitalists be able to hold turkey in check through the Menace of an Armenian Uprising and to use the Armenians as can and fod through the Menace of a pogm by Kurds peasants of Syria and Arabia Independence was promised to you by the English and the French and now they hold your country

Occupied by their armies now the English and the French dictate your laws and you who have freed yourselves from the Turkish Sultan from the Constantinople government are now slaves of the Paris and London governments which merely differ from the Sultan’s government in being stronger and better able to

Exploit you you all understand this yourselves the Persian peasants and workers have risen against their traitorous Teran government the peasants in Mesopotamia are in revolt against the English troops you peasants in Anatolia have rushed to the banner of Kamal Pasha in order to fight against the foreign

Invasion but at the same time we hear that you are trying to organize your own party a genuine peasants party that will be willing to fight even if the pases are to make their peace with the UNT exploiters Syria has no peace and you Armenian peasants whom the unun despite

Its promises allows to die from Hunger in order to keep you under better control you are understanding more and more that it is silly to hope for salvation by the UNT capitalists even your Bourgeois government of the dashnaks the Lackey of the UNT is compelled to turn to the

Workers and peasants government of Russia with an appeal for peace and help peasants and workers of the near East if you organize yourselves if you form your own workers and peasants government if you arm yourselves if you Unite with the red Russian workers and peasants Army

Then you will be able to defy the English French and American capitalists then you will settle accounts with your own native exploiters then you will find it possible in a free alliance with the workers republics of the world to look after your own interests then you will

Know how to exploit the resources of your country in your own interest and in the interest of the working people of the whole world that will honestly exchange the products of their labor and mutually help each other we want to talk over all these questions with you at the

Congress in Baku spare no effort to appear in Baku on September 1st in as large numbers as possible you march year in and year out through the deserts to the holy places where you show your respect for your past and for your God now March through deserts over mountains

And across rivers in order to come together to discuss how you can escape from the bonds of slavery how you can unite as brothers so as to live as men free and equal from this summons the nature of the Baku Congress Can Be Imagined it was in fact a social

Revolutionist far more than a nationalist assembly of its 1900 delegates nearly 1,300 were professed Communists turkey Persia Armenia and the Caucasus countries sent the largest delegations though there were also delegations from Arabia India and even the Far East the Russian Soviet government was of course in control and

Kept a tight hand on the proceedings the character of these proceedings were well summarized by the address of the noted Bolshevik leaders in AFU president of the executive committee of the third Moscow International who presided zenu said we believe this Congress to be one of the greatest events in history for it proves

Not only that the progressive workers and working peasants of Europe and and America are awakened but that we have at last seen the day of the Awakening not of a few but of tens of thousands of hundreds of thousands of millions of the laboring class of the peoples of the

East these peoples form the majority of the world’s whole population and they alone therefore are able to bring the war between capital and labor to a conclusive decision the Communist International said from the very first day of its existence there are four times as many people living in Asia as

Live in Europe we will free all peoples all who labor we know that the laboring masses of the East are in part retrograde though not by their own fault they cannot read or write are ignorant are bound in Superstition believe in the evil spirit are unable to read any

Newspapers do not know what is happening in the world have not the slightest idea of the most Elementary laws of hygiene comrades our Moscow International discussed the question whether a socialist revolution could take place in the countries of the East before those countries had passed through the

Capitalist stage you know that the view which long prevailed was that every country must first go through the period of capitalism before socialism could become a Live question we now believe that this is no longer true Russia has done this and from that moment we are able to say that China India turkey

Persia Armenia also can and must make a direct fight to get the Soviet system these countries can and must prepare themselves to be Soviet republics I say that we give patient Aid to groups of persons who do not believe in our ideas who are even opposed to us

On some points in this way the Soviet government supports Cal in Turkey never for one moment do we forget that the movement headed by Kamal is not a communist movement we know it I have here extracts from the verbatim reports of the first session of the Turkish people’s government at Angora Kamal

Himself says that the ciff’s person is sacred and inviolable the movement headed by Kamal wants to rescue the ciff’s sacred person from the hands of the foe that is the Turkish nationalists point of view but is it a communist point of view no we respect the religious convictions of the

Masses we know how to re-educate the masses it will be the work of years we use great caution in approaching the religious convictions of the laboring masses in the East and elsewhere but at this Congress we are bound to tell you that you must not do what the Kamal

Government is doing in Turkey you must not support the power of the sulan not even if religious considerations urge you to do so you must press on and must not allow yourselves to be pulled back we believe the Sultan’s hour has struck you must not allow any form of

Autocratic power to continue You Must Destroy You must annihilate faith in the sultan you must struggle to obtain real Soviet organizations the Russian peasants also were strong Believers in the Zar but when a true people’s Revolution broke out there was practically nothing left of this faith in the Zar the same thing

Will happen in turkey and all over the east as soon as a true peasants Revolution shall burst forth over the surface of the Black Earth the people will very soon lose faith in their Sultan and in their masters we say once more the policy pursued by the present

People’s government in Turkey is not the policy of the Communist International it is not our policy nevertheless we declare that we are prepared to support any revolutionary fight against the English government yes we array ourselves against the English Bourgeois we seize the English imperialist by the throat and tread him underfoot it is

Against English capitalism that the worst the most fatal blow must be dealt that is so but at the same time we must educate the laboring masses of the East to hatred to the will to fight the whole of the rich classes indifferently whoever they be the great significance

Of the Revolution now starting in the East does not consist in begging the English imperialist to take his feet off the table for the purpose of then permitting the wealthy Turk to place his feet on it all the more comfortably no we will very politely ask all the rich

To remove their their dirty feet from the table so that there may be no luxuriousness Among Us no boasting no contempt of the people no idleness but that the world may be ruled by the workers horny hand the Baku Congress was the opening gun in bism ofou campaign

For the immediate buising of the East it was followed by increased Soviet activity and by substantial Soviet successes especially in the Caucasus where both Georgia and Armenia were boliz in the spring of of 1921 these very successes however awakened growing uneasiness among Soviet Russia’s nationalist proteges the various Oriental

Nationalist parties which had at first welcomed moscow’s Aid so enthusiastically against the UN taunt Powers now began to realize that Russian bolshevism might prove as great a Peril as Western imperialism to their patriotic aspirations of course the Nationalist leaders had always realized moscow’s ult goal but hither to they had felt

Themselves strong enough to control the situation and to take Russian Aid without paying moscow’s price now they no longer felt so sure the numbers of class conscious proletarians in the East might be very small the Communist philosophy might be virtually unintelligible to the Oriental masses nevertheless the very existence of

Soviet Russia was a warning not to be disregarded in Russia an infinitesimal communist minor maity numbering by its own admission not much over 600,000 was maintaining an unlimited despotism over 170 million people Western countries might rely on their popular education and their staunch traditions of ordered Liberty the East

Possessed no such bullworks against bolshevism the East was in fact much like Russia there was the same dense ignorance of the masses the same absence of a large and Powerful middle class the same tradition of despotism the same popular acquiescence in the rule of Ruthless minorities finally there were the

Ominous examples of sovietized turkistan and azerbijan in fine Oriental nationalists bethought them of the old adage that he who sus with the devil needs a long spoon everywhere it has been the same story in Asia Minor musal has arrested bolshevist propaganda agents while Turkish and Russian troops

Have more than once clashed on the disputed Caucasus Frontiers in Egypt we have already seen how an amicable Arrangement between Lord Milner and the Egyptian nationalist leaders was facilitated by the latter’s fear of the social revolutionary agitators who were inflaming the Fahim in India sir Valentine kyol noted

As far back as the spring of 1918 how Russia’s collapse into bolshevism had had a sobering effect on Indian public opinion the more thoughtful Indians he wrote now see how helpless even the Russian intelligencia relatively far more numerous and matured than the Indian intelligencia has proved to control the great ignorant masses as

Soon as the whole fabric of government has been hastily shattered 304 in Afghanistan likewise the Amir was losing his love for his bolshevist allies the streams of refugees from Soviet turkistan that flowed across his borders for protection headed by his Kinsman the Amir of bokara made am manakan do some

Hard thinking intensified by a serious Mutiny of Afghan troops on the Russian border the mutineers demanding the right to form soldiers councils quite on the Russian pattern bolshevist agents might tempt him by the loot of India but the Amir could also see that that would do

Him little good if he himself were to be looted and killed by his own rebellious subjects 305 thus as time went on Oriental nationalists and conservatives generally tended to close ranks into like an apprehension of bolism had there been no other issue involved there can be little doubt that

Moscow’s advances would have been repelled and bolshevist agents given short shrift unfortunately the Eastern nationalists feel themselves between the Buist devil and the Western imperialist deep sea the upshot has been that they have been trying to play off the one against the other driven toward Moscow by every untaught aggression driven

Toward the west by every Soviet coup of Lenin Western Statesmen should realize this and should remember that bism best propagandist agent is not xenopi orating at Baku but General gurode with his sagales battalions and strong arm methods in Syria and the Arab hinderland certainly any extensive

Spread of bism in the East would be a terrible misfortune both for the Orient and for the World At Large if the Triumph of bism would mean barbarism in the West in the East it would spell downright Savage the sudden release of the ignorant brutal Oriental masses from their

Traditional restraints of religion and custom and the submergence of the relatively small upper and middle classes by the flood of social Revolution would mean the destruction of all Oriental civilization and culture and a plunge into an abyss of Anarchy from which the East could emerge only after Generations perhaps

Centuries footnotes 284 for these early forms of unrest CA l e chatelier Lis LOD Dix noima Pages 22-44 Paris 1,888 285 DH dodwell economic transition in India Economic Journal December 1910 286 pin Shandra pal the forces behind the unrest in India contemporary review February 1910 200 87 J Chile administrative

Problems of British India p339 London 1910 English translation 288 Dr Ronald Ross wretchedness a cause of political unrest the survey February 18th 1911 289a YF Ali life and labor in India Pages 332 London 1907 290 ew Capen a sociological appraisal of Western influence on the Orient American Journal of Sociology May 1911

291 P psychology de Revolution chinois review day D March 15th 1912 El Bertrand l e Miraj orinal Pages 164 to 166 JD re the real India Pages 162 to 163 292 Albert Meen L and D aler UD sociali p276 Paris 1918 293 Albert Meen L and djer UD sociali Pages 339 to

345 294 J Ramsey McDonald the government of India Pages 133 to 134 London 1920 295 George’s fuart quoted in the Literary Digest August 17th 1907 Pages 225 to 226 296 a van jip and algerie P 1882 Paris 1914 297 the Englishman Kolkata quoted in the Literary Digest February 21st 1914

P369 298 for these larger World aspects of Bolshevik propaganda cul Milly akov bolism and international danger London 1920 also my Rising tide of color against white World Supremacy Pages 218 to 221 and my article bism the heresy of the Underman the century June 1919 299 C Chapter V 300 C chapter 6

3014 events in Afghanistan and Central Asia C sir th holdik the influence of bolshevism in Afghanistan new Europe December 4th 1919 ibal Alish sha the fall of bohara the near East October 28 1920 and his the Central Asian tangle Asiatic review October 1920 for bolshevist activity in the near

And Middle East generally C Milly akov op CIT Pages 243 to 260 295 to 296 7 Major General Sir George Aston Bolshevik propaganda in the East Fort nightly review August 1920 wed Allen transcaucasia past and present quarterly review October 1920 sir Valentine kyule conflicting policies in the near East

New Europe July 1st 1920 L Dumont Wilden Awakening Asia the living age August 7 1920 translated from the French Major General Lord Edward Glen Muslims and the tangle in the Middle East National Review December 1919 Paxton hibbon Russia at peace the nation New York January 26th

1921 H vonhoff daal erang iner turkey ey Deutsch review December 1919 RG Hunter on taunt oil Islam new Europe August 26th 1920 terara the story of the Arab Revolt Balan review August 1920 vaju Lenin’s attempt to capture Islam new Europe June 10th 1920 Hans went ex

Orient Lux Nord un s May 1920 George young Russian foreign policy new Europe July 1st 1920 302 ibal Ali sha OPC 3034 events in the Caucasus cwe Allen trans caucasia past and present quarterly review October 1920 CE Beck Hofer the situation in the transcaucasus new Europe September 2nd 1920 dzt l

Aeran La Premier Republic mman review Dand musulman 1919 Paxton hibbon exit Georgia the nation New York March 30th 1921 304 Serv kyol India in travail Edinburgh review July 1918 also chh the a con India in transition p17 London 1918 305 ikbal Alish sha opci the end

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